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A TEXT-BOOK 



OF 



PSYCHOLOGY 



FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



/ 



BY 



DANIEL PUTNAM, LL. D. 

PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY IN THE MICHIGAN STATE 

NORMAL COLLEGE 



NEW YORK :. CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



THE LIBRARY OF 

CON SR ESS, 
Two CopiEa Received 

APR, 16 1901 

|,— .Copyright entry 
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COPY B. 






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Copyright, 1901, 

BY 

DANIEL PUTNAM 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 



Putnam's Text-book of Psychology. 



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PREFACE 

Several years ago the present writer prepared a small 
work upon elementary psychology, which was published 
just before the large number of elementary books on the 
subject made their appearance, and before the new 
psychology, so-called, had taken on any very definite 
form. That work had a special purpose in view, made no 
claim to originality in matter, and naturally followed, in 
its arrangement of material, the usual order of the so- 
called old psychology. 

Since that time many changes have occurred in the 
department of mental science. New theories have been 
advanced, new modes of expression have been adopted, 
and new arrangements of matter have come into favor in 
many quarters. The progress of discussion and further 
study and investigation have modified, to some extent 
and in some directions, the opinions of the author. The 
present work is the result of these modifications and 
changes. 

The fact is recognized that theories are still in an un- 
settled condition, and that other and further advances 
will be made, and consequently other modifications and 
changes will become necessary in the future. 

Meanwhile it seems the part of wisdom to gather up, 
select, and adopt such new doctrines as appear to be 

3 



4 PREFACE 

tolerably well established. The new is in most, if not all, 
cases a natural evolution from the old ; and there can be 
no real conflict between them. It is folly, or worse, to 
cast aside the old simply because it bears the marks of 
age; it is equally foolish and absurd either to adopt or to 
reject the new because it has an aspect of novelty and a 
certain appearance of strangeness. Truth should be wel- 
comed and gladly accepted, from whatever source it may 
come. 

It is believed that the chapters treating of the moral 
nature will give additional value to the work, since the 
most effective ethical instruction can be given only in 
connection with the general study of the laws of mind. 
The true basis for moral teaching and training must be 
found in the soul itself, and in the intuitive principles of 
right and righteousness. 

The book is designed to meet the wants of students in 
normal schools, in high schools, and in other institutions 
of a secondary character, and also to be of service for 
private reading, especially to teachers in elementary and 
intermediate schools. 

When properly taught, psychology has a very high 
practical value for parents, teachers, and for persons of 
all professions and employments concerned with human 
character and the forces and conditions which give direc- 
tion to human conduct. This is especially true of the 
psychology of the feelings, of volition, and of the moral 
powers. The teaching should be made as practical as 
possible. 

In the use of this work the teacher should remember 
that it professes to be only a text-book. And while it 



PREFACE S 

contains as much matter as can be thoroughly mastered 
by ordinary classes in the time usually allotted to the 
subject in the schools, yet supplementary instruction 
should be added, when time and circumstances permit, 
to topics selected according to the judgment and taste 
of the instructor. 

The subjects of attention and interest have been treat- 
ed in Chapter III., out of deference to the most common 
order of arrangement. They may, however, be studied 
with fully equal advantage after Chapter IV., or possibly 
even later. 

Some suggestions in relation to apparatus and experi- 
ments for illustration have been reserved for an appendix. 
This has been done for two reasons. First, the value of 
experimentation, in the teaching of psychology in the 
ordinary school, has not yet been fully determined; and 
the comparative value of different forms of experiment 
is still largely a matter of individual opinion. The sug- 
gestions, being placed separately, can be readily changed, 
subtracted from, or added to, as experience shall prove 
to be desirable. 

Secondly, some teachers will prefer to omit most of the 
experiments ; others will place higher value upon experi- 
ments of their own than upon those suggested. With 
the present arrangement omissions and selections can be 
made by teachers according to their own judgment and 
preferences, without causing confusion in their classes. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

1. Introductory 7 

II. The Nervous Systems 21 

III. Attention and Interest 35 

IV. Presentative or Perceptive Activities — Sensation 

AND Perception 51 

V. Representation AND Reproduction — Imagination.. 74 
VI. Representation and Reproduction, continued — 

Memory ; Laws of Association 88 

VII. The Thinking Activities — Conception ; Judg- 
ment 112 

VIII. The Thinking Activities, continued — Reasoning.. 128 

IX. The Feelings ; Sensations 145 

X. The Feelings, continued — the Emotions 161 

XL The Feelings, continued — the Sentiments 188 

XII. Desire ; the Will 211 

XIII. The Moral Nature and Moral Law 231 

XIV. Instinct ; Habit 249 

XV. Sleep, Dreaming, Somnambulism, Hypnotism 269 

Appendix — Suggestions as to Experiments and Ap- 
paratus 283 

Index 297 

6 



TEXT-BOOK OF PSYCHOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY, 



Psychology defined. — The simplest definition of psy- 
chology is that which defines it as the science of the mind 
or soul ; or the science of the phenomena of mind or of 
consciousness. A phenomenon, as the term is here used, 
denotes anything which appears either to the senses or in 
consciousness. 

Professor Ladd, indorsed by Professor James, defines 
psychology as *^ the description and explanation of states 
of consciousness as such.'* States of consciousness are 
any and all forms of psychical activity, sensations, emo- 
tions, volitions, and so on through the whole list. 

Psychology is divided into several kinds, more or less 
distinct from one another in their character and mode of 
treatment. 

Physiological Psychology, as described and limited by 
Ziehen, "deals exclusively with those psychical phenom- 
ena to which concomitant physiological processes of 
the brain correspond.'* Material processes, according to 
this view, correspond to psychical processes or phenomena 

7 



8 INTRODUCTORY 

in such a way that one of these cannot exist without the 
other. The material processes have their origin in the 
brain, except such as are purely reflex. Of necessity, 
therefore, physiological psychology must, in its discus- 
sions and explanations, *^ ignore all psychical processes 
for which no corresponding physiological processes in the 
brain are conceivable/* Consequently physiological 
psychology by itself can deal with none of the higher in- 
tellectual activities, such as imagination, judgment, and 
reason, nor with any of the higher feelings, such as the 
feelings of beauty, sublimity, and reverence. Physio- 
logical psychology affords a natural introduction to the 
study of psychology as a complete science. 

Empirical Psychology, as described by Lindner, '' has 
set itself the task of proceeding from the particular facts 
of consciousness, and, in accordance with the method of 
induction, of basing upon them an explanatory theory of 
soul life.'' It may be called the method of experience. 
Its sources of knowledge are '* the facts of inner expe- 
rience,'* and these are learned by observation of self and 
of others and by experiments. Lindner says, '' Self- 
observation is the most important source of psychological 
investigations." 

Another division of psychology is into the old and the 
new. 

The Old Psychology is sometimes defined as '' rational 
or speculative psychology." One writer says, '' The old 
psychology is a s}!^stematic knowledge of the soul through 
introspection and observation. The student turns his 
attention, first of all, upon the phenomena of conscious- 
ness in his own mind. He assumes that this is the 



THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY 9 

primary and only way of acquiring original knowledge of 
mental phenomena. He studies manifestations of psy- 
chical action in others. He seeks thus to know the exact 
nature and the universality of the action' of the mind.*' 

The New Psychology, according to Dr. Scripture, *' is 
entitled to its special adjective because it employs a 
method new in the history of psychology, although not 
new in the history of science. . . . The psychologist 
of the new dispensation must see every statement proven 
by experiment and measurement before he will commit 
himself in regard to it. Every alleged fact, every state- 
ment, must be brought as evidence before the Court of 
Reason.'* The new psychology is especially the method 
of studying and investigating the facts of consciousness, 
as far as this is possible, by experiment. It is a difference 
in method rather than in matter. It deals with the same 
phenomena, the same facts, as the old psychology, but 
deals with them in a different way, and from a different 
starting point. The two psychologies are, after all, only 
one. 

President Hall, of Clark University, says, *' For me, the 
new psychology does not mean dropping any of the 
old. . . . The new psychology adds accuracy, a vast 
body of new facts, a better method of introspection, has 
got into fruitful, instead of negative, relations with 
science." 

The real relations between the old and the new psychol- 
ogy are easy to comprehend. The new methods are 
the natural and necessary complements of the old. They 
have appeared by evolution and not by revolution. 
Everything in them which experience proves to be use- 



10 INTRODUCTORY 

ful, will be accepted and adopted cheerfully by all stu- 
dents and teachers of psychology. The old psychology 
starts from the standpoint of self-observation ; that is, it 
begins with consciousness and its deliverances. The new 
methods supply consciousness with assorted material 
upon which to exercise its activity. Experiments are 
made at one time upon the sense of sight, at another 
upon the sense of hearing, and so on. These experiments 
affect the sensory nerves ; the nerves report to the great 
nerve center. So much and so far we have physiology 
alone ; this is physiological psychology. The products 
are sensations ; sensations have been excited, and the mind 
must do the rest. The experiment is in reality a question 
put to consciousness ; and no answer can be made until 
consciousness is aroused, and sends back an answer over 
the fibers of a motor nerve. There is in this no conflict 
between the old and the new psychology ; the new fur- 
nishes material and conditions by means of its laborato- 
ries and apparatus, and the old makes them effective 
through the reaction of the soul to the external stimulus. 
The first general definition, that '* psychology is the science 
of the mind," embraces all the psychologies just named. 
The following quotation from Professor Le Conte states 
the different methods of psychological investigation very 
clearly : '* We have in psychology at least three methods 
of research : namely, the method of experiment, the 
method of comparison or the evolution method, and the 
method of introspection. The relative domains of these 
have not yet been adjusted. The experimental method 
is, I believe, limited in its application to the lowest phe- 
nomena, that is, to those allied to physiology. Introspec- 



THE MIND OR SOUL II 

tion, on the other hand, is limited to the higher phenom- 
ena, that is, to the distinctively human. The method of 
comparison, or the evolution method, is probably without 
limit in its application.'* 

The Mind or Soul. — Mind may be defined as the Ego, 
the I myself ; that which knows, feels, and wills. We as- 
su7ne, at the outset, that there is a soul, that it is imma- 
terial, that, though intimately associated with matter, it is 
distinct front matter. Such assumption appears reason- 
able. We cannot escape the conviction that where action 
is manifested, there must be something to act ; where 
movement is discovered there must be something to 
move, and some force to cause the movement. It seems 
equally reasonable to believe that when knowing, feeling, 
and volition manifest themselves, there must be some- 
thing to know, feel, and will. A psychology without a 
soul would be much like a science of physics without 
matter. 

Of the substance of the soul we have no knowledge. 
Dr. Davis says, '' The mind is commonly thought of as a 
substance. Matter is extended substance. Mind is con- 
scious substance. Matter and mind are known to us only 
under two totally distinct series of phenomena or quali- 
ties. Matter manifests extension, solidity, etc. Mind 
manifests knowing, feeling, and willing. Now no quality 
can be conceived as existing apart, by itself, in absolute 
independence, per se. We necessarily think it the quality 
of something in which the quality inheres. That which 
manifests the phenomenon we call substance/' 

Mind is called the inner world as distinguished from 
the outer world. Knowing, feeling, and willing are func- 



12 INTRODUCTORY 

tions of the mind, not the mind itself. The mind is by 
one called the Thinker ; and this writer proceeds to in- 
quire, what is the thinker? '' Is it the passing state of 
consciousness itself, or is it something deeper and less 
mutable? The passing state is the very embodiment of 
change. Yet each of us spontaneously considers that by 
' I ' he means something always the same." 

The object of our study is, not the substance of mind, 
but the phenomena of mind ; not so much what mind is 
as what mind does, the states and activities which it ex- 
hibits. 

Consciousness. The term consciousness has been 
freely used in the previous discussion ; it is necessary to 
determine what meaning is to be attached to the word. 
Compayr^ says: '' Consciousness is the immediate knowl- 
edge which we have of whatever takes place in any given 
part of our being." 

Psychology might be defined as the science which 
treats of the states of consciousness. States of con- 
sciousness include all forms of mental activity, and all 
conditions of feeling. We may define consciousness as 
the mind knowing itself and its own states and activities, 
or as the mind being aware of its own activities while 
they are taking place. We are, therefore, conscious only 
of the present, and only of the conditions of our own 
minds. The question, are we conscious of all our own men- 
tal activities ? is an interesting one, but cannot be discussed 
here. There are evidently varying degrees of conscious- 
ness, and it is possible that a region of the subconscious 
may exist in the mind ; that impressions may be made 
of which, at the time, we are dimly, or not at all, con- 



^ 



STUDY OF SELF 1 3 

scious. In our present study, however, we are concerned 
only with those states and activities of the soul of which 
we are clearly and distinctly conscious. 

Subjective and Objective. As matter of study, psy- 
chology may be divided into subjective and objective. 
As subjective it is the study of self, or of one's own con- 
sciousness by introspection ; that is, by looking into the 
operation of our own minds. As objective it is the study 
of persons and things outside of ourselves, outside of 
consciousness. This is observation, and may also be ex- 
perimentation. It includes the study of children, of 
adults, of people of all classes and conditions, and also, 
at some times and for some purposes, of animals. 

Begin with Study of Self. — As just stated, we study 
ourselves by introspection, by attending to what is going 
on in consciousness. We thus know that we ourselves 
think and feel and will ; that we see, hear, taste, and 
smell. This is the mind looking, so to speak, into itself 
and observing its own activities. In this way we can in- 
vestigate, to a certain extent, all the states and acts of 
our minds. By such careful self-observation we discover 
as much as it is possible for us to comprehend of the proc- 
esses by which we learn of form, color, distance, size ; 
of odor, flavor, and other characteristics of the great 
multitude of objects all about us. We gain some insight 
into the wonderful processes of retaining and recalling 
what we have once learned, of imagining, judging, and 
so forth. Of all these things we get no knowledge ex- 
cept by the study of consciousness. 

Connection with the Body. In this introspective 
study of self we soon discover that the states and activi- 



14 INTRODUCTORY 

ties of our minds are closely associated with states, con- 
ditions, and movements of the body, especially of what 
we call the nervous system. We discover under what 
conditions, both of mind and body, we have feelings of 
pain and pleasure, of joy and sorrow, of good will and ill 
will, of pity and indignation, and of the marvelous variety 
of other feelings. We discover the external causes 
which excite these feelings in our consciousness ; the 
circumstances under which they arise, and the means by 
which they may be controlled, allayed, or entirely re- 
moved. We learn, also, something of the relation be- 
tween our thinking and our feeling and willing. We 
discover that if we think in a certain way, we have a par- 
ticular sort of feeling; if we think in a different way, we 
have a different kind of feeling. These and many other 
things in relation to the movements of the mind and of 
the relation of mind and body we learn by this study of 
ourselves. 

We discover, moreover, that many of the inner activi- 
ties of consciousness are followed by outer activities of 
body, usually called motor activities. For instance, the 
feeling of anger is generally followed by certain move- 
ments of the limbs, by vigorous movements of the 
muscles of the face, by a peculiar appearance of the eyes, 
and often by a rough and harsh mode of speech. 

The inner feeling of kindness and good will is followed 
by outer manifestations which indicate the state of the 
soul. At this point we are not studying the causes of these 
states of consciousness ; these causes will be considered 
further on. It is sufificient here to say that the inner 
condition and the outer manifestation soon become 



STUDY OF OTHERS 1 5 

thoroughly associated with each other. Of necessity, 
in the study of self, we begin with that which is within, 
and proceed to discover how it affects the outer man, the 
physical organism. This necessarily leads to the study 
of the body ; that is, especially to the study of the 
nervous system. 

Study of Others. In the objective study of children 
or of adults, the order of study is reversed. We cannot 
directly look into the mind of another. Consequently 
we must begin with a careful examination of the condi- 
tions and appearance of the body, of the muscles of the 
face, of the eyes ; indeed, of the whole physical organ- 
ism. The mode of speech must also be studied. These 
outer manifestations indicate the inner state of the 
mind. Our conclusion is that the state of consciousness 
which produces certain motor and other manifestations 
in us will produce the same or similar manifestations in 
others. 

Children can be studied almost anywhere. They are 
all about us. They can be observed and studied in the 
home, on the .playground, on the street, in the school. 
An intelligent observer may commence this form of 
study at the very beginning of a child's life, watching 
for the first indications of intelligence in the infant, and 
noting when and how the senses, one after another, 
exhibit signs of activity. The observer may, in this 
way, discover what forms of mental activity first mani- 
fest themselves, and what the order of development is, 
and what is the rate of progress. The mind of the 
young child may thus be learned to a certain extent, and 
also the relation of the development of the mind to the 



l6 INTRODUCTORY 

growth of the body. The external indications, the 
movements of the limbs, of the hands, the head, and the 
eyes, and of the whole body, — these indications of mental 
states and acts can be detected and described. Such 
observations may be kept up through the whole period 
of childhood and youth, and even into the period of 
maturity. All the steps of a child's progress in physical, 
mental, and moral development may be noted and regis- 
tered, together with the apparent influence of times, 
circumstances, and environment generally. In the school 
such observations may be made by any teacher who has 
made mind, especially her own mind, a subject of careful 
study. The effects upon the mind of pursuing different 
objects and topics of study, the results of different 
methods of instruction and management can be com- 
pared. From such comparisons valuable practical con- 
clusions may often be derived. 

Experimental Study. An experiment may be de- 
scibed as a carefully conducted series of observations, 
having a special end in view, and carried on under 
prepared and somewhat artificial conditions. The ** New 
Psychology " deals very largely with experiments. These 
belong mostly, if not altogether, within the province 
of physiological psychology, and deal with manifesta- 
tions of mind in very close connection with the action of 
the special nerves of sense. Experiments made by com- 
petent observers with necessary apparatus are of much 
interest and considerable value. For further suggestions 
as to experiments, refer to the appendix. 

Some Obstacles in Study of Self. Introspection re- 
quires the mind to observe its own states while they 



OBSTACLES IN STUDY OF THE MIND 17 

exist, and its own activities while they are going on, or 
else it must study these through memory. As soon as 
the mind pauses, so to speak, to examine and analyze its 
own states and acts, these must be, to some extent, 
interrupted, and, consequently, cease to be entirely 
natural. If the observation is made through memory, 
after the states and acts have passed, some elements will 
probably escape notice. Experience, however, will enable 
one to avoid these difficulties to a considerable extent, 
and to observe without interrupting very seriously the 
movement of the ^* stream of consciousness." 

In the Observation of Others. One of the chief diffi- 
culties in the way of reaching trustworthy conclusions con- 
cerning the phenomena of mind by the study of others 
is the limited field open to any one observer. Moreover, 
the contents of the minds of young children, and the 
direction of their mental activities, must be determined 
very largely by their immediate environment. Given 
the surroundings of a child, it will be comparatively easy 
to tell, with a good measure of accuracy, the ideas which 
he must have and the general direction which the current 
of his thinking must take. The observation, therefore, 
should have for its main purpose, not so much to discover 
what children know at a particular stage of development, 
since that may be determined, to a large extent, before- 
hand, as to ascertain what use they have made of the 
material of knowledge about them ; what effect it has 
produced upon them ; what influence it has had and is 
having upon their mental and moral life. The purpose 
is to discover the nature of the mental and moral activi- 
ties of childhood, the processes and the rate of their 



l8 INTRODUCTORY 

development, and the conditions most favorable to healthy 
growth. 

Such study should not be confined to young children ; 
every age and condition of life affords material for profit- 
able observation. For parents and teachers especially, 
the mental and moral characteristics manifested during 
the period when the physical organism is approaching 
maturity furnish matter worthy of particular attention. 
Going beyond the province of ordinary observation, the 
study of the psychical peculiarities of savages, of partially 
civilized peoples, of the neglected and criminal classes, 
and of the insane, supplies valuable material for the stu- 
dent of psychology. 

In the study of adults we shall frequently be in danger 
of drawing wrong conclusions from the fact that they 
have become accustomed to conceal their states of mind 
to a considerable extent. Most of these difficulties can 
be avoided if the observer is skillful and has had a good 
deal of experience. 

In addition to study by introspection and observation, 
much study of mental phenomena can be had in connec- 
tion with our reading, especially in the reading of biog- 
raphies and histories. We should also compare the re- 
sults of our own investigations with the conclusions given 
in books treating of psychology. All these methods of 
study should be combined. 

Connection of Mind and Body. In our study of self 
by introspection and of others by observation, we dis- 
cover a very close connection between mind and body, 
especially between the mind and the nervous system ; 
consequently, in order to understand the activities of 



CONNECTION OF MIND AND BODY I9 

mind, its states and acts, we must become acquainted 
with the nature and organization of this system, which, 
while it forms one great whole, is usually, for conve- 
nience of treatment, subdivided into two parts or lesser 
systems, one being called the sympathetic system and 
the other the cerebro-spinal system. 

The sympathetic system consists of chains of nervous 
ganglia lying along the sides and in front of the spinal 
column, connected with one another and also, at some 
points, with the spinal nerves. This system influences 
the muscles of the vital organs, those of the heart and of 
some of the other organs. The action of these muscles 
does not affect consciousness to any considerable extent, 
nor volition. In the study of mind, therefore, it will not 
be necessary to give much attention to the sympathetic 
system. 

The cerebro-spinal system consists of the brain, the 
spinal cord, the medulla oblongata, and the nerves branch- 
ing off from these. The close connection of the various 
parts of this system with mental action, makes it neces- 
sary to study these parts and their relations to the activ- 
ities of mind very carefully. The next chapter will be 
given to this study. 

TOPICS OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Psychology defined. 

2. Definition of Ladd and James. 

3. Physiological psychology ; what it embraces, 

4. Empirical psychology ; Lindner. 

5. The old psychology. 

6. The new psychology. The relation between the two. 



20 INTRODUCTORY 

7. Quotations from President Hall and others. 

8. Methods of the new psychology. 

9. Professor Le Conte's opinion. 

10. The mind or soul defined. 

11. Dr. Davis's view of substance. 

12. The object of our study. 

13. Consciousness defined. 

14. Subjective study of psychology. 

15. Objective study ; how extensive. 

16. Begin with self; why, etc. 

17. Connection of mind and body. 

18. Some things which v:e learn. 

19. Study of others ; how pursued. 

20. Study of children. 

21. Experimental study. 

22. Some obstacles in the study of self. 

23. Obstacles in the study of others. 

24. What we should study in children. 

25. Study in reading. 

26. Connection of mind and body. 

27. Nervous systems ; which to be studied. 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS. 

Nerve Matter, or nerve tissue, is of two kinds, the 
white and the gray. The white naatter is composed of 
very minute fibers, varying in diameter from y^Vo" ^^ 
h)^\qq of an inch. These fibers may be compared to 
exceedingly fine threads. A large number of the fibers 
united form a cord called a nerve. 

The gray matter is composed of nerve cells of a great 
variety of forms, and varying in diameter from -g^^ 
to g^Vo" ^f ^^ inch. A collection of these cells forms 
a nerve center. The gray matter of the brain is the 
largest collection of such cells, and the spinal cord the 
next largest. The small centers are called ganglia, the 
largest of which constitute the sympathetic nervous sys- 
tem. The nerve cells generate nerve force, and also 
receive such force from other cells and transmit it again. 
The nerve fibers connect the various nerve centers and 
convey the nerve force in all directions. They perform 
in the body an office similar to that performed by the 
telegraph and telephone wires in a great city, conveying 
information and orders from one point to another, and 
from the central station to the most distant parts^of the 
organism. In the great nerve center, the brain, the white 
matter is within, and the gray matter on the outside. 

21 



22 THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS 

In the nerves the arrangement is reversed, the gray mat- 
ter being within and the white matter on the outside. 

Two Nervous Systems. There are two nervous sys- 
tems, the sympathetic, or ganglionic, system, and the 
cerebro-spinal system. The sympathetic system consists 
of two rows of internal ganglia, one row on each side of 
the spinal column. Nerves go from these ganglia to the 
various internal organs, but not to the skin or to the 
organs of the special senses ; they are not under the con- 
trol of the will. The processes of digestion, circulation, 
respiration, and absorption are controlled by this system. 
The ganglia are connected together by small nerve 
fibers, and they are also connected in the same way with 
the cerebro-spinal system. As this system has little 
direct relation to manifestations of mind it is unnecessary 
to give it further attention. The cerebro-spinal system 
consists of the brain, taken as a whole, and the spinal 
cord, with the nerves which have their origin in these 
central organs. 

The Brain itself, disregarding some of the smaller parts, 
is subdivided into the cerebrum, called the large brain, 
the cerebellum, called the little brain, and the medulla 
oblongata, which is an enlargement of the spinal cord 
after it enters the skull. It is presumed that students of 
psychology have at least an elementary knowledge of 
the brain and the nervous system generally, so that much 
of minute detail will be unnecessary in this connection. 
It is recommended that, while studying this chapter, some 
brief work upon the nervous system be carefully reviewed. 

In a restricted sense, the term brain is sometimes con- 
fined to the cerebrum, on account of its size and its 



RELATIVE WEIGHT OF BRAIN AND BODY 23 

probably superior position in connection with psychical 
phenomena. 

The weight of the brain will usually, but not always, 
bear a natural relation to the weight of the body as a 
whole. Among adult Americans and Europeans, the 
average weight of the brain of the male is from 49 to 50 
ounces, and of the female from 44 to 46 ounces. The 
weight of the brain, as compared with the weight of the 
body, is essentially the same in both sexes, but this rela- 
tive weight of brain and body varies greatly at different 
periods of life. 

Relative Weight of Brain and Body. Dr. Caldwell, in 
his work on Mind and Brain, gives the following table : 
At birth (male), i to 5.85. 
At birth (female), i to 6.50. 
At 10 years of age, i to 14. 
At 20 years of age, i to 30. 
At later periods, i to 36. 

In maturity the proportion varies from i to 36 to I to 
40, according to some other authorities. 

The brain reaches its maximum size before the fifteenth 
year, but the processes of internal development go on till 
the age of thirty and perhaps to a later time. Late in 
life there is a slow decrease in the weight of the brain. 
As a rule great intellectual power is associated with a 
large brain. The brain of Cuvier, the great naturalist, 
weighed a little over 64 ounces ; the brain of Daniel 
Webster, the great statesman, weighed 63^ ounces. 
There have been, however, many noted men with com- 
paratively small brains. Evidently quality is of as much 
importance as quantity. 



24 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS 



A healthy development of the brain in a child is a 
necessary condition of the exhibition of intellectual en- 
ergy. The immature brain should be only lightly taxed, 
and precocious mental activity should be wisely and cau- 
tiously checked rather than encouraged and intensified. 
No regular and severe psychical labor can be safely im- 
posed upon a child until the brain has attained nearly its 
maximum size. The teachings of physiology and ex- 
perience are in perfect accord upon this point. 

Divisions of the Cerebrum. The cerebrum is divided 
into the right and left hemispheres by a deep fissure. 



Fissure of Rolando 



Parietal 
lobe 
Frontal 
lobe 

Occipital 
lobe 



Fissure of Sylvius 'Temporal lobe 

Figure I. — Side View of Cerebrum. (Kirke's Handbook.) 

This figure shows the fissures of Rolando and Sylvius and the location of the lobes. 
From the text (p. 26) the motor region and some of the sensory regions can be located. 

The outer surfaces of both hemispheres are again sub- 
divided by fissures into lobes, four of which are of im- 
portance in our study. The most prominent of these 
fissures is the fissure of Rolando, which separates the 
upper portions of the hemispheres transversely into two 
parts ; and the fissure of Sylvius, which divides the sides 
of the hemispheres. These fissures and the lobes formed 
by them are shown in Figure I. A model of the brain 




THE CEREBRUM 2$ 

will show them more clearly. The frontal lobe includes 
the brain surface anterior to these great fissures ; tfie 
parietal lobe lies behind the fissure of Rolando, and is 
bounded below by the occipital lobe. The occipital lobe 
forms the rear portion of the brain. The temporal lobe 
is situated on the side of the brain. The lobes are all 
subdivided into lesser parts by smaller fissures. 

Division of Labor. In all large business establishments 
there is a careful division of labor. Each person em- 
ployed has his own special work to perform ; each piece 
of machinery has its own function to execute. By such 
division much more and much better work is done. 

It would seem probable, even if no observations or ex- 
periments had been made, that the different functions of 
the brain are, for certain purposes, assigned to different 
portions of that organ. Observations and experiments 
have proved that, to a certain extent, such is the fact. 
Thus far, however, the brain activities correlated with the 
higher manifestations of mind, such as imagination, judg- 
ment, and reason, have not been localized in any particu- 
lar part of the cerebrum. Notwithstanding this division 
of duties, it seems probable that, as one sense can, to a 
considerable extent, take up the work and supply the 
place of another sense, so one portion of the brain may, 
under some conditions, perform the usual functions of 
another portion which has, by an accident, been dis- 
abled. 

Professor Hering says, upon this matter, *^ The different 
parts of the hemispheres are like a great tool box with a 
countless variety of tools. Each single element of the 
cerebrum is a particular tool. Consciousness may be 



26 THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS 

likened to an artisan whose tools gradually become so 
numerous, so varied, and so specialized that he has for 
every minutest detail of his work a tool which is espe- 
cially adapted to perform just this precise kind of work 
very easily and accurately. If he loses one of his tools 
he still possesses a thousand other tools to do the same 
work, though under disadvantages both with reference to 
adaptability and the time involved. Should he happen 
to lose the use of these thousands also, he might retain 
hundreds, with which to do the work still, but under 
greatly increased difficulties. He must needs have lost a 
very large number of his tools if certain actions become 
absolutely impossible." 

Some Localizations. That part of the brain concerned 
in producing movements of the body, or of some portions 
of it, called the motor region, is located on both sides of 
the fissure of Rolando. The existence of this motor 
zone seems to be established by satisfactory evidence of 
various kinds. Those parts of the brain which receive 
impressions through the senses are called sensory por- 
tions or regions. The visual center is located in the oc- 
cipital lobes; the center for hearing is situated, according 
to Professor James, in the upper convolution of the tem- 
poral lobes ; according to another authority, '' probably 
in the rear two-thirds of the first and second temporal 
convolutions.'* Centers for the other senses have not 
been definitely and clearly located. No centers have been 
determined for the higher mental processes. It is gen- 
erally believed that the frontal lobes are concerned in 
these higher forms of psychical activity. The cortex, or 
outer envelope of gray matter, is supposed to be espe- 



CEREBELLUM; MEDULLA OBLONGATA 2/ 

cially the seat of mental action. The interior of the cere- 
brum is composed mostly of nerve fibers which connect 
intimately the various portions of the organ. 

The Cerebellum, or little brain, lies between the cere- 
brum and the medulla oblongata. It is the center of 
many reflex actions, and coordinates muscular movements 
such as the movements in walking. When the cerebellum 
has been seriously injured, w^alking and some other mus- 
cular movements become impossible or very irregular and 
uncertain. Actions, such as playing the piano and other 
musical instruments, which at first require close attention 
and the service of the cerebrum, become nearly automatic 
and are taken in charge by the cerebellum, thus leaving 
the larger brain free for the performance of higher duties. 
In consequence of this arrangement, walking, running, 
playing on instruments of music, and other similar activ- 
ities can be carried on, and at the same time the mind 
may be occupied with other subjects, not appearing to 
give any attention to the physical movements. 

The Medulla Oblongata. As previously stated, the 
medulla oblongata is an enlargement of the spinal cord 
within the cranium, just below the cerebellum. It is the 
center, or contains numerous minor centers, of important 
reflex activities. It has some connections with the sym- 
pathetic nervous system, and thus has something to do 
with the movements of the vital organs whose regular 
action is necessary to the preservation of life. Experi- 
ments upon animals have proved that the nerve centers 
between the cerebrum and the spinal cord have each a 
specific function to perform. It is reasonable to suppose 
that the same is true with the human being. 



28 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS 



The Spinal Cord in persons of average height is about 
seventeen or eighteen inches in length, nearly circular in 
form, and a little more than half an inch in diameter. It 
is protected in the canal of the vertebral column. Two 
deep fissures, one on the ventral and the other on the 
dorsal side, nearly divide the cord into right and left 
halves. In the cord the white matter is on the outside, 
surrounding the gray. The shape of the cord, the fis- 
sures, and the attachment of the nerves are shown in 
Figures II and III. 




Figure II. — Transverse Section of the Spinal Cord. (Landois.) 
The butterfly form is the gray matter, surrounded by the white. A R, anterior roots, and 
PRy posterior roots, of a pair of nerves. 

The Nerves. The general form and structure of the 
nerves have already been described. The nerve cells 
have a variety of forms and differ considerably in size, 
varying in diameter from -^-^ to -^-^-q of an inch. The 
nerve fibers also vary in size from y^Vo ^^ i o o^o o o ^^ ^^^ 
inch in diameter. 



THE NERVES 



29 



Afferent and Efferent Nerves ; Sensory and Motor 
Nerves, The nerves are of two kinds, called afferent 
and efferent. The afferent nerves convey impressions, 
excitements, or irritations from the outer surface, or from 
some other part of the body, to the nerve centers. The 
efferent nerves transmit nervous excitation or stimulus 
from the nerve centers to the muscles at the surface and 
other parts of the body. The most important of the 




Figure III. — Segment of the Spinal Cord. (Landois.) 

This figure shows the origin of the roots of the nerves. ^, anterior, and/, posterior, 
median fissure ; ar^ anterior, and /r, posterior, roots of the nerves; «, nerves beyond the 
union of the roots. 

afferent nerves for the psychologist are the sensory 
nerves, which connect the organs of sense with the great 
nerve center, the brain, and transmit sensations or the 
stimuli which result in sensations. The most important 
of the efferent nerves are the motor nerves, which are the 
means of conveying orders from the nerve centers, and 
thus producing movements of the muscles in the various 
parts of the body. 

Cerebral Nerves, There are twelve pairs of cerebral 
nerves. Some of these have their origin in the upper 
lobes of the brain, and others in the medulla oblongata. 
A part of these nerves terminate in the organs of the 
special senses ; of the others some are sensory and some 
are motor. The nerves of the special senses will be 



30 THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS 

noticed, as far as necessary, in connection with the 
descriptions of the various senses. 

Spinal Nerves. Of spinal nerves there are thirty-one 
pairs. Each of the trunk nerves has two roots, called 
respectively the anterior or ventral root and the posterior 
or dorsal root. The anterior root consists of motor or 
efferent fibers, and the posterior of afferent or sensory 
fibers. If the motor root of a particular nerve were 
destroyed it would be impossible to move that part 
of the body to which this nerve extends, however much 
pain there might be from the action of the sensory por- 
tion of the nerve. If the sensory root were severed, no 
pain would be felt, however much injury might be 
inflicted. If the spinal cord is broken the part of the 
body supplied with nerves by the portion of the cord 
below the break becomes paralyzed. 

After extending a little distance from their origin in 
the cord, the trunk nerves begin to divide and subdivide, 
and continue this process until the motor fibers are dis- 
tributed to the various voluntary muscles, and the sensory 
fibers, in tlie same way, especially to the surface of the 
body. The skin is so abundantly supplied with sensory 
filaments that even the point of the finest needle is sure 
to touch some of them if thrust into the skin. 

Reflex Action is action answering back to some sort of 
previous action. Strictly reflex action does not affect 
consciousness. Such action results from the activity of 
certain nervous ganglia. Nervous energy is discharged, 
in reply to some provocation, from these "little brains." 
Illustrations of reflex movements are very abundant. 
Touch with a feather the sole of the foot of a person 



REFLEX ACTION 3 1 

asleep, and the foot is instantly jerked away. Here the 
action is purely reflex, and consciousness is not disturbed 
in the least. In case of a person awake, there is con- 
sciousness of the tickling of the foot, but the jerking 
away takes place before volition can order the movement 
to be made. 

Reflex actions are altogether mechanical ; that is, 
the nerves concerned act as a machine would act under 
like conditions. By this mechanical sort of activity the 
mind is saved much time and trouble ; it is relieved from 
giving attention to a great number of little, commonplace 
matters, and, consequently, can give its time and energies 
more exclusively to the higher intellectual activities. 
Some acts, like swallowing, are both reflex and auto- 
matic from the very beginning of life. Some other acts 
become nearly automatic by being constantly repeated. 
Walking is an example. Such acts are sometimes called 
secondarily automatic, to distinguish them from those 
which are automatic from the first, or primarily automatic. 

The processes by which forms of activity, originally 
voluntary, become automatic, may properly enough be 
called nervous and muscular education. After such edu- 
cation and training have been acquired, a long series of 
acts may be performed with accuracy, ease, grace, and 
rapidity, without any exercise of volition except the 
slight act necessary to start the series. The mechanism 
required to produce reflex acts is very simple and very 
easily understood. It consists (i) of an afferent nerve 
with its filaments terminating in or near a sensitive sur- 
face; (2) a minor nerve center, that is, a ganglion with 
which the afferent nerve is connected ; and (3) an efferent 



32 THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS 

or motor nerve connected with this center and also with 
muscles by which movements can be made. The action 
commences by some irritation or impulse upon the outer 
extremities of the afferent nerve; this irritation is con- 
veyed along the fibers of this nerve to the minor nerve 
center, and is there changed into another impulse which 
passes along the efferent nerve and produces the move- 
ments by its action in the muscles. In some sense an 
efferent impulse is a transform.ed afferent impulse, but it 
is not always simply that. The efferent impulse may be 
either greater or less than the preceding afferent im- 
pulse. This is illustrated in coughing and sneezing and 
some other familiar acts. 

The movements produced by the action of the motor 
nerves have their origin in one of three sources : They 
may be (i) purely automatic, caused by the spontaneous 
discharges of nervous energy or force from some minor 
nerve center. These movements are of several kinds, 
such as the random and the instinctive. They may (2) 
be reflex, that is, they may be responses to previous sen- 
sory irritations. This division includes the reflex actions 
which have been made such by the processes of train- 
ing. They may (3) be voluntary, caused by an act of voli- 
tion, quite independent of any previous sensory or other 
external activity. 

Upon this matter Professor Ladd says, in his Descrip- 
tive Psychology, '* Some writers on psychology strive to 
explain all the movements, not only of the simpler 
amoeboid bodies, but even of the most complex organ- 
isms, as falling somehow under the term reflex. But he 
who has watched even the amoeba under the microscope, 



CONCLUSION 33 

and noted the unexpected, inexplicable, self-originated 
character of much of its motor activity, will probably be 
gravely dissatisfied with such easy-going explanations. 
The more careful and unprejudiced our study of the be- 
havior of microorganisms becomes, the more difficult do 
we find it to bring all the phenomena of their movements 
under terms of a molecular mechanism that is excited to 
react solely by the application of stimuli to its periphery. 
As the student of physiology rises higher in the scale of 
life, he finds the number and complication of the phe- 
nomena that baffle explanation by way of merely reflex 
motor hypotheses greatly increased.'* It is evident to 
one who is inquiring only for facts and the truth, that 
all motor activity does not have its origin in sensation. 
There is something of self-determining power in the 
human soul which can, when occasion requires, set the 
physical organism in motion. 

Conclusion. — The discussions and conclusions of this 
chapter may be briefly summed up as follows : Nervous 
matter is of two kinds, the white and the gray. The 
peculiar property of the white nerve fibers is to receive 
impressions from stimuli of various sorts and transmit 
these to and from the nerve centers. The cellular gray 
centers are reservoirs and producers of nervous energy 
and give direction to the various forms of external activ- 
ity. The medulla oblongata controls most of the auto- 
matic activities, and the spinal cord is the chief center of 
reflex actions, both original and acquired. The cere- 
brum is concerned with the higher functions of the mind, 
and may be called the servant of the intellect, the will, 
and the moral activities. 
3 



34 THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Nerve matter ; two kinds. 

2. The sympathetic system ; its functions. 

3. The cerebro-spinal system. 

4. The brain ; its subdivisions. 

5. Presumption as to knowledge. 

6. Weight of brain compared with weight of body. 

7. Relation between size of brain and intellectual power. 

8. How early the brain may be taxed with labor. 

9. Divisions of the cerebrum ; fissures, lobes. 

10. Division of labor ; its advantages. 

11. Professor Hering's statements. 

12. Some localizations of functions. 

13. The cerebellum ; its functions. 

14. The medulla oblongata ; its offices. 

15. The spinal cord ; length, size. 

16. The nerves ; afferent and efferent ; sensory and motor. 

17. Cerebral nerves. 

18. Spinal nerves ; the two roots. 

19. Results of destroying the roots. 

20. Divisions of the nerve fibers. 

21. Reflex action ; illustrations ; advantages. 

22. Automatic acts ; primary, secondary. 

23. Nervous and muscular education. 

24. The mechanism required to produce reflex acts. 

25. Origin of the movements produced by the motor nerves, 

26. Professor Ladd's opinion. 

27. Conclusions from the discussion. 



CHAPTER III. 

ATTENTION AND INTEREST. 

Attention defined. Attention is one of the most es- 
sential conditions of effective mental work. It is not a 
distinct power of the mind, nor a specific mode of psychic 
action, like perception, or representation, or imagination. 
Any activity of the mind, intensified and concentrated 
upon some object, involves that condition which we call 
attention. 

Attention may be defined as that state of the mind in 
which its energy and activity are concentrated upon some 
particular object of observation or of thought. It may 
also be defined as any form of psychical activity intensified 
and directed to some particular object. The mental ac- 
tivity is focused upon something to the total or partial 
exclusion of everything else from consciousness. 

Extension and Intension. The action of attention 
may be compared to that of a microscope. An object 
glass of high power concentrates the light so as to bring 
out with great distinctness even the most minute features 
of that part of the object within the field of view. But 
this field of view is very limited. The work done by the 
instrument is most thorough and effective, but is confined 
to a narrow space. A glass of less power allows the eye 

35 



36 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

to traverse a wider field, but the resulting knowledge 
lacks in definiteness and completeness. 

Effects of Concentration. Attention may be called 
the microscope of the mental eye. Its power may be 
high, that is, the energy of the mind may be thoroughly 
concentrated. The intension is great, but the field of 
view is very limited. There is no extension. When the 
intension is high, attention is confined within very 
narrow limits, but its action is exceedingly intense 
and absorbing. It sees but few things, but these few are 
seen ** through and through," and most thoroughly 
learned. The resulting knowledge is perfectly clear, 
sharply defined, and available for use. Mental energy 
and activity, whether of perception or thought, thus con- 
centrated, act like the sun's rays concentrated by a burn- 
ing glass. The object is illumined, heated, finally set on 
fire. Impressions are so deep that they can never be 
effaced. This sort of attention is the prime condition 
of effective and productive mental labor. 

Varieties of Attention. Hamilton, with his usual 
acuteness of analysis, makes three varieties of attention. 
He says, *' I am persuaded that we are frequently deter- 
mined to an act of attention, as to many other acts, in- 
dependently of our free and deliberate volition. At- 
tention is of three degrees or kinds. The first is a mere 
vital and irresistible act ; the second, an act determined 
by desire, which, though involuntary, may be resisted by 
our will; the third, an act determined by a deliberate 
volition." The first of these is the attention of the child, 
who is so strongly drawn by the allurements that he is 
utterly unable to resist them. He gives attention be- 



ATTENTION EXTERNAL OR INTERNAL 37 

cause he cannot avoid it. The second may be illustrated 
by this example: The pupils of a class, seated before. a 
teacher, are told that presently some strange person, or 
strange object, will come in at the door of the school- 
room, and are urgently requested not to turn their heads 
so as to look at the object or person. Suppose the per- 
son enters with a loud noise and some violent demonstra- 
tion. There is, on the part of the 'pupils, an intense 
desire to look in the direction of the door, but hav- 
ing been previously warned they can, by a vigorous 
effort of will, resist the urgent promptings of desire. 
The third variety, the voluntary, needs no explana- 
tion. 

Two Varieties. Most writers recognize only two kinds 
of attention, the voluntary and the involuntary. The 
involuntary is better called non-voluntary or reflex. 

Mr. Sully remarks : *^ When the mind is acted upon by 
the mere force of the object presented, the act of atten- 
tion is said to be non-voluntary. It may also be called 
reflex (or automatic), because it has a striking analogy to 
reflex movement, that is to say, movement following 
sensory stimulation without the intervention of a con- 
scious purpose. On the other hand, when we attend to 
a thing under the impulse of a desire, such as curiosity or 
a wish to know about a thing, we are said to do so by an 
act of will or voluntarily. These two modes of attention 
are very properly distinguished. In early life non-volun- 
tary attention is predominant ; in later life, voluntary 
attention." 

Attention External or Internal. Attention may be 
directed to external objects. This is purposed observa- 



38 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

tion. In this case the perceptive activity is in an excited 
state, and exerts itself through some one or more of the 
organs of sense. We may be intent in watching or ex- 
amining an object of sight ; we may hsten intently to 
catch some sound ; we may seek eagerly to detect the 
peculiar character of some odor or flavor. We may do 
these things of set purpose, because we desire to learn 
something ; then the attention is voluntary ; — or we may 
be allured by something in the objects about us; then 
the attention is reflex. 

The attention maybe directed inward, may be internal. 
In this case the mind is absorbed and occupied by proc- 
esses of thought, or in the examination of these proc- 
esses. When internal attention becomes exceedingly 
intense so that ordinary impressions upon the senses are 
unnoticed, a person is said to be absent-minded or in a 
state of abstraction. Amusing examples are given of 
such complete absorption in study or meditation. New- 
ton sometimes forgot the hour and the need of his din- 
ner, and men are said to have forgotten the day and the 
hour of their own weddings. 

Condition of the Body. In external attention the ap- 
pearance and posture of the body frequently indicate the 
greater or less degree of concentration of mind upon 
objects of perception. The whole body is bent forward ; 
the head is turned to one side and often inclined ; the 
neck is sometimes stretched to its full length ; the eyes 
are wide open and fixed, and frequently the mouth is 
opened without the knowledge of the person. Tlie 
entire nervous and muscular systems are highly excited. 
In case of internal attention the eyes may be open with- 



L 



STIMULI 39 



out seeing, and the sense of hearing and even that of 
feeling may appear to be lost for the time. 
Upon what the Degree of Attention depends. The 

degree of attention which can be exercised at any time, 
depends (i) upon the condition of the body. If there is 
an abundance of nervous energy, attention can be easily 
secured. If the body has become fatigued, continuous 
attention is nearly impossible. It can be given only in 
response to some violent stimulus, or in forced and pain- 
ful obedience to the imperative demands of the will ; the 
effort to give attention, under such conditions, is ex- 
tremely irritating and exhausting, and to require it of 
children is hardly less than cruelty. 

The degree of attention depends (2) also upon the 
mental condition. If the- mind is fatigued and exhausted, 
effective attention is absolutely impossible. At such a 
time the student cannot afford to make heavy requisi- 
tions upon himself, nor can a teacher afford to make them 
upon his pupils. The expenditure of vital and psychical 
force is too great for the meager returns secured. Con- 
sequently work which calls for much concentration of 
psychical energy, and for close and protracted attention, 
should be undertaken at that period of the day when 
both body and mind are most fresh and vigorous. 

Attention produced by Stimuli, etc. — Non-voluntary 
attention, and to some extent even voluntary, is secured 
by allurements, incitements, and stimuli of some sort. 
The attention is said to be caught, to be arrested, fas- 
tened, or commanded. 

External Stimuli. — These enticements are either ex- 
ternal or internal. In case of non-voluntary attention 



40 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

and with children, they are mostly external. They are 
the characteristics and qualities of objects and acts which 
strongly impress and excite the senses. A very bright 
light, a brilliant color, some strange peculiarity of form 
or movement, an unusual stir of some sort, lay hold upon 
the sense of sight and compel attention. A loud noise, 
a peculiar combination of sounds, an unexpected burst of 
song or of musical instruments, a clap of thunder, strike 
the ear and arrest attention. Among the external stimuli 
are all the various devices of parents, teachers, and others, 
employed to attract, hold, divert, and occupy the atten- 
tion of young children. 

Internal Stimuli include all things which appeal to the 
representative and thinking powers, and those which ex- 
cite the feelings through these activities. In older stu- 
dents the mental representations of the pleasures and 
advantages resulting from the acquisition of knowledge 
stimulate the student and fix attention upon the subjects 
of study. The real or imagined advantages supposed to 
follow the possession of wealth, or power, or influence of 
any nature, constitute a strong allurement to many minds 
and concentrate attention upon the means necessary to 
attain these. The pleasure springing out of the mere ex- 
ercise of any form of mental activity, when the exercise 
is proper in degree and amount, is a constant stimulus to 
attention. Affection for parents, love of friends, desire 
of approval are so many internal stimuli to the young 
pupil. The most effective internal, as well as external, 
stimuli vary with age, with habits, and with degrees of 
development and culture. 

Natural Stimuli. Stimuli to attention, like stimuli to 



STIMULI 41 

appetite, or to physical or mental exertion of any sort, 
may be natural, agreeable, and wholesome, or they may 
be unnatural, disagreeable, and unwholesome in their 
ultimate effect. Natural stimuli allure and entice the 
attention, lay hold upon it with a gentle grasp and pro- 
duce no sudden and violent movements. The mind is 
not forced and dragged along like an unwilling and strug- 
gling animal, or like a resisting child. The activity ex- 
cited is steady and grows in intensity. The interest and 
the attention reach their highest pitch by gradual incre- 
ments and not by a single unnatural and painful effort. 
Among such stimuli are the forms, features, qualities, and 
characteristics of external objects properly presented ; 
and also customary acts, movements, modes of address, 
and management. Of this kind are the pleasurable feel- 
ings of the soul, the emotions, affections, and desires 
when not unduly excited, and, indeed, all forms of men- 
tal activity within proper limits. 

Unnatural Stimuli. Among the unnatural stimuli, 
which are usually harmful, are all harsh and violent in- 
citements, strange and frightful objects suddenly pre- 
sented, strange sights, sounds, and actions ; so also are 
the uncouth, senseless, and almost barbarous devices 
sometimes resorted to by unskilful teachers and sensa- 
tional orators. Such stimuli compel attention for the 
moment ; they produce, for a short time, an intense but 
painful and exhaustive concentration and activity of 
mind, followed, of necessity, by weariness, weakness, and 
often disgust. The frequent use of stimuli of this char- 
acter renders the mind insensible to the influence of 
milder and more healthful incitements, just as artificial 



42 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

stimulants and highly seasoned food destroy the relish 
for plain diet and wholesome cooking. The natural 
appetite is destroyed in both cases. Children accus- 
tomed to the government of objurgations and blows soon 
become deaf to requirements expressed in quiet tones 
and mild words. So pupils whose attention is demanded 
by loud and angry talking, by violent gesticulations, by 
rappings with a ferule, and stampings of the foot, become 
blind and deaf to all natural and healthful stimuli. 

Influence of Surroundings. The power to secure atten- 
tion of others or to give attention one's self is very greatly 
affected by the immediate surroundings. This is espe- 
cially observable in case of children, but even pupils of 
considerable maturity and culture are conscious of the 
influence of environment in this matter. Anything un- 
usual in the room or about the house distracts the atten- 
tion. Familiarity with the place, with the furniture and 
its arrangement, with the tables, books, papers, and other 
articles used in the preparation of lessons, or in the pros- 
ecution of any form of literary or scientific labor, con- 
tributes to increase the power of attention. An approach 
is made here to the domain of habit. 

Influence of Association. The ordinary influence of 
environment is greatly increased by the power of asso- 
ciation in giving direction to mental activity. When the 
associations are in harmony with the objects of observa- 
tion or thought to which the attention is solicited, they 
are most valuable and effective aids in producing perfect 
concentration of psychical energy. A room set apart for 
study, pleasantly associated with books, lessons, teachers, 
and instruction ; with quietness, good order, agreeable 



LIMITATION OF TIME 43 

companions, and industry in literary pursuits, makes 
attention comparatively easy. On the other hand, a 
building or room associated with enticing games and 
sports, with exciting representations of any kind, with 
musical or theatrical entertainments, or with anything 
peculiarly attractive and out of harmony with books, 
study, and school work generally, renders it difficult to 
fix attention upon lessons, or any kind of mental labor. 
The surroundings, the associations, and the occupation 
must be in accord in order that attention may be had 
without painful effort, and that mental activity may be 
most fruitful. 

Limitation of Time. Very vigorous activity of either 
body or mind can be kept up for only a limited time. 
The more intense and absorbing the activity, the shorter 
its duration. The attention of young children should be 
asked for only a very brief period. Let it be made as com- 
plete as possible while it is held, and let it be followed 
by a period of entire relaxation and repose. As age in- 
creases and habit begins to exert its power and lend its 
assistance, the periods of tension may be gradually 
lengthened, and those of relaxation may become shorter 
and less frequent. The child should be taught and 
trained to study with the utmost possible vigor during 
the periods of study. Great care should be taken to 
save pupils from falling into the habit of ''dawdling" 
over books and lessons. Nothing is more fatal to real 
scholarship or to effective work than this habit, into which 
children are sometimes driven by unreasonable demands, 
and by unwise methods of training. 

Professor James writes: ** There is no such thing as 



44 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

voluntary attention sustained for more than a few sec- 
onds at a time. What is called sustained voluntary at- 
tention is a repetition of successive efforts which bring 
back the topic to the mind. The topic once brought 
back, if a congenial one, develops ; and if its develop- 
ment is interesting it engages the attention passively for 
a time. This passive interest may be short or long. As 
soon as it flags, the attention is diverted by some irrele- 
vant thing, and then a voluntary effort may bring it back 
to the topic again ; and so on, under favorable conditions, 
for hours together. During all this time, however, note 
that it is not an identical object in the psychical sense, 
but a succession of mutually related objects forming an 
identical topic only, upon which the attention is fixed. 
No one can possibly attend continuously to an object 
that does not change.*' 

A Condition of Memory. Attention is the most essen^ 
tial subjective condition of retentioji and reproduction, A t- 
tention and memory are inseparably connected. Things are 
forgotten because no real, intense attention was bestowed 
upon the process of learning. Mechanical repetition is 
often relied on to supply the place of genuine concentra- 
tion of mental activity. Repetition is necessary, espe- 
cially for young pupils, and is of great value in many 
cases, but it can never be made a substitute for attention. 
The one merely touches the surface, the other pene- 
trates to the very heart of things. 

Can attention be given to more than one thing at the 
same time ? This is an old question, and has been much 
and eagerly discussed. The question is not of practical 
importance, but rather of theoretical interest. It is cer- 



ATTENTION TO TWO THINGS 45 

tain that several things may appear at the same time in 
consciousness. We are in a general way conscious of 
them. But whenever the attention is concentrated upon 
any one of these, the others disappear for the time. The 
attention can be transferred very rapidly from one ob- 
ject, or one group of objects, to another object ; but they 
are not in the focus of attention at the same instant. 

Possible Explanation. It is possible that this old 
problem has its solution in the well-known fact of the 
persistence of impressions upon the senses and upon the 
mind. Sensations produced by impressions upon the 
nerves of sight, hearing, or taste persist for an appreci- 
able period of time after the exciting causes have ceased 
to act. Why may not this be true of the products of 
other forms of mental activity ? For example, I am 
comparing two objects placed before me. I am unable 
to look intently upon both objects at the same instant ; 
the attention is directed in turn to one and then the 
other. The change from one to the other may be said 
to be instantaneous ; nevertheless it occupies an appreci- 
able portion of time. Is it not altogether beyond doubt 
that the image of the one object persists on the retina 
and in the mind until the image of the other is formed ? 
In this case the second image is superimposed, so to 
speak, upon the first, and the two are thus brought into 
the most favorable position for comparison. May not 
the same be true of the mental products or images of 
two successive acts of representation ? It may also be 
true when one of the psychical products is a recalled 
picture and the other a present impression upon one of 
the senses. 



46 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

Importance of Attention. The importance of the 
power to concentrate all the mental energy upon some 
one object can hardly be overestimated. ^* The differ- 
ence between an ordinary mind and the mind of a New- 
ton consists principally in this, that the one is capable of 
the application of a more continuous attention than the 
other.'* Newton himself said that if he had made any dis- 
coveries, it was owing more to patient attention than to 
any other talent. Genius has been called '* a continued 
attention,'* and also '^ a protracted patience." ''The 
command of one's faculties by the power of attention is 
more or less perfect in proportion to the natural strength 
of the will, which varies in individuals, and to the devel- 
opment of its energy under the Law of Habit, namely : 
Our powers acquire facility and strength by exercise.'* 

Interest. The most natural incentive to voluntary 
attention is interest. In the child what we call curiosity 
takes the place of interest. The term interest is em- 
ployed in connection with a great variety of affairs, and 
with widely different meanings. We are here concerned 
only to inquire what interest is when spoken of in con- 
nection with school affairs and the study of psychology. 

Interest as Feeling. In strictness of speech interest 
is not definable ; it can be fully known only by personal 
experience. In the child and, to a considerable extent, 
but not exclusively, in the mature person, interest is feel- 
ing ; that is, a more or less excited state of mind, the ex- 
citement varying in intensity from a movement so gentle 
as to be hardly observable in consciousness to a disturb- 
ance of a most violent character. In its mildest form 



INTEREST MORE THAN FEELING 47 

the feeling is a simple emotion, a gentle ripple upon the 
surface of the soul, most frequently pleasurable, but 
sometimes painful, drawing or urging the attention to- 
ward that which excites the feeling. When interest 
grows more intense the soul is stirred more and more 
deeply, and the feeling may become exceedingly com- 
plex ; emotion, affection, and desire being mingled to- 
gether. In many cases, pleasure, pain, hope, fear, antici- 
pation, expectation, and even dread and terror, may be 
combined in various degrees to produce interest. The 
interest is pleasurable or painful according to the nature 
of the feeling. Usually when we speak of ^^ being inter- 
ested " in some topic or subject, we mean that the con- 
dition aroused is of the agreeable sort. *^ A thing which 
fully interests us excites the w^ill to a deliberate concen- 
tration of the attention with the view either to prolong 
or gain some pleasure or satisfaction, or to get rid of or 
avert some pain. And since the positive end of volun- 
tary action is pleasure or happiness, the term interest 
naturally comes to point to those objects and related 
activities which are immediate sources of enjoyment, or 
w^hich are connected with, or have a bearing on, these.'' 

Interest more than Feeling. So long as interest is 
only some form of feeling it can last but for a short time. 
Continued interest involves something more than mere 
feeling. As intellectual development goes on we come 
to be interested in objects, in courses of life, in men and 
things, not because they excite emotion, but because 
they appeal to the judgment, the reason, the imagination, 
and other mental activities. In all these cases there is 
no doubt that feeling follows or accompanies the Intel- 



48 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

lectual action. There is pleasure in mere activity when 
this is not too protracted or too intense. 

Two Things Necessary. Experience arid observation 
unite in testifying tliat any new object of study, or any new 
purposes and plans of action, in order to excite interest i7t 
us and draw attention, must possess two apparently oppo- 
site characteristics. The object, or purpose, must have 
some degree of familiarity, must bear some resemblance 
to one or more known things ; must have some points 
by which it can, without too much difificulty, be attached 
to the present content of the mind. An object entirely 
new, strange, and unusual repels the mind and prevents 
attention. 

But while complete strangeness must be avoided, the 
object must have something of variety and novelty. 
With its likeness there must be a considerable measure 
of unlikeness. The mind refuses to be interested in 
sameness and in the mere repetition of the old and 
familiar. It will not give attention to these for any 
length of time. 

Expectation or Expectant Attention. Voluntary at- 
tention in order to be continued for any appreciable 
length of time must have behind it or connected with it 
the feeling of expectation. The mind must be put into 
the attitude of watching for something which has not yet 
appeared ; the feeling is a mixed one ; the pain of un- 
satisfied curiosity is mingled with the pleasure of eager 
anticipation. In order to induce this sort of attention 
the matter to be presented to a class or an individual 
must be unfolded Httle by little, step by step, each step 
opening the way for the next, each fact or truth pointing 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 49 

forward to something not yet reached, and every advance 
evidently bringing the mind nearer and nearer to the 
thing which is to be finally attained. A writer says : '^ In 
expectation the attitude of the mind is one of strenuous 
activity. It stretches forward in anticipation of the 
coming event. This expectation may be of different 
degrees of perfection. Thus we may know only the 
time of the impression, but not its nature. In listening 
to a new poem, or a new musical composition, we antici- 
pate the succeeding sounds in their regular recurrence. 
This anticipation of a new impression, or series of im- 
pressions, after a regular interval is a condition of the 
pleasurable effect of an orderly rhythmic sequence of 
sounds or sights. The mind not only adjusts itself to 
each new impression, but has a continued satisfaction of 
nascent expectation." This sort of attention is of the 
utmost importance to the teacher and to the public 
speaker. 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Importance of attention ; not a faculty. 

2. Definitions of attention. 

3. Extension and intension ; comparison with the microscope. 

4. Effects of mental concentration. 

5. Varieties of attention ; Hamilton. 

6. Illustration of Hamilton's second variety. 

7. The two varieties ; Sully's remarks. 

8. External and internal attention. 

9. Condition of the body in giving attention. 

10. Degree of attention depends (i) upon condition of the body ; 

(2) upon the mental condition. 

11. Attention produced by stimuli ; external ; internal. 

4 



50 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

12. Natural stimuli ; unnatural ; effect of the unnatural. 

13. Influence of surroundings. 

14. Influence of association. 

15. Limitation of time. 

16. Professor James's views. 

17. Attention a condition of memory. 

18. Attention to more than one thing at the same time. 

19. Possible explanation. 

20. Importance of attention. 

21. Newton's testimony. 

22. Interest ; the natural incentive. 

23. Interest as feeling ; kinds of feeling ; degrees of feeling. 

24. Action of the will ; pleasure anticipated. 

25. Interest more than feeling ; sources of this. 

26. The two things necessary in an object in order to secure at- 

tention. 

27. Expectant attention or expectation. 

28. Attitude of the mind in such attention. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PRESENTATIVE OR PERCEPTIVE ACTIVITIES — SENSATION 

AND PERCEPTION. 

Position of the Child. With the nervous organization, 
partially described in a previous chapter, the child finds 
himself in the midst of a world of material objects, and 
of influences and forces. These act upon the sensitive 
nervous organization, particularly upon the nerves of the 
special senses. At every turn some object or force 
stimulates, excites, or irritates, or in some way im- 
presses the nerves of smell, taste, touch, hearing, or sight. 
The impressions or irritations, made upon the outer 
extremities of the afferent nerves, are conveyed, by some 
action of the nerve fibers, inward to the nerve centers, 
and, finally, in some mysterious and unknown way, to 
the center and seat of intelligence, the mind. They 
produce peculiar states of mind, which can be named, 
but cannot, in any full sense of the word, be defined. 
The states of mind are known only by consciousness. 

Sensation is a state of mind, or of consciousness, 
caused by impressions made upon a sensory nerve. It is 
the simplest mental state. 

First Conscious Psychical Activity. Conscious psy- 
chical life, without doubt, begins with sensations. The 
soul becomes aware of a change of state ; a new ex- 
perience takes place, and this experience causes other 

SI 



52 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

activities of soul to manifest themselves. One of these 
is discrimination and comparison. Sensations are re- 
peated, and different sensations appear through the 
various senses, sensations of touch, taste, smell, sound, 
and sight. These sensations, in a very imperfect way 
doubtless, are examined, compared, and recognized as 
alike or unlike, similar or dissimilar. The resemblances 
and differences, the likenesses and unlikenesses, are very 
slowly and gradually noted and distinguished, and by 
degrees are fixed in memory, so that a sensation, when 
repeated, is recognized as having been previously experi- 
enced. These early activities of discrimination, com- 
parison, reproduction, and recollection, are undoubtedly 
very feeble and imperfect, but that such activities have 
a beginning here is beyond question. A sensation of the 
present moment could not be compared with one experi- 
enced a short time ago, unless this last sensation could 
be recalled into consciousness with sufficient distinctness 
to be recognized. 

Sensations not Knowledge. Properly speaking, sensa- 
tions are not real knowledge, but only raw material out 
of which, by other psychical processes, knowledge can be 
produced. Sensations are altogether within, simple 
states of consciousness, giving us by themselves no 
acquaintance with the world outside ourselves. It is 
true that the causes of sensations are material, things 
external which, in some way that we do not yet under- 
stand, affect the sensory nerves and create an excitement 
which is propagated along the nerve fibers to the great 
center, the brain. It is not until perception takes place 
that knowledge really begins. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSATIONS 53 

Sensibility is the mind's susceptibility to be affected 
or acted upon by the excitement of a sensory nerve. 
This characteristic of mind is to be carefully distin- 
guished from the susceptibility of the body to be im- 
pressed by outward agencies and influences. These 
agencies modify, in some manner, the sense organs, and 
produce some form of motion, but sensation is not mere 
physical movement. It is true, also, that such impres- 
sions do not always cause conscious sensations. The 
impressions may be too weak, or the attention may be 
too completely turned in some other direction. Soldiers 
are sometimes severely wounded in battle without being 
aware of the injury at the time. 

The Conditions of Sensation are three, and are read- 
ily noticed: (i) a physical organ, a nerve, capable of 
conveying excitement or irritation to the great nerve 
center; (2) some object or influence to stimulate or 
excite this nerve ; (3) some conscious agent, some self 
to receive and interpret this excitement in conscious- 
ness. 

Further on it will be seen that our senses can give us 
only a comparatively small part of the characteristics 
and qualities of the world about us. There are limita- 
tions to the power of the eye and ear, and beyond these 
limits they can give us no information. If we had more 
senses, or the capacity of our present ones were in- 
creased, our knowledge might undoubtedly be greatly 
extended. 

Characteristics of Sensations. Sensations have sev- 
eral obvious characteristics. The most important of 
these are : (i) Quantity or Intensity ; (2) Quality, the 



54 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

characteristic by which sensations are recognized as 
coming through different senses, and by which, also, 
they are rendered more or less agreeable and pleasing; 
(3) Duration, denoting the time occupied by both the 
physical and the psychical processes. 

Quantity or Intensity of Sensations. Differences in 
intensity are readily recognized, but not easily measured. 
Flavors and odors are strong or weak, agreeable or dis- 
agreeable ; sounds are loud or low ; lights are bright or 
dim ; pressure is heavy or light. 

Intensity Absolute or Apparent. The intensity of 
sensations should be distinguished into absolute or real, 
and apparent. The absolute varies with the variation 
of the stimulus ; the apparent varies, not alone with the 
variation of the stimulus, but as much with the variation 
of surrounding circumstances and with the variation in 
the conditions of the individual affected. The ticking of 
a clock, scarcely noticed during the day amid the con- 
fused multitude of mingled sounds, is heard with great 
distinctness in the stillness of night. A burning gas jet, 
affording no appreciable light at midday, appears brilliant 
in the darkness of midnight. A moderately bitter sub- 
stance fails to excite a bitter sensation if the nerves 
of taste have just been affected by a substance much 
more intensely bitter. Very pungent odors render the 
nerves of smell insensible to the presence of the same 
sort of odors of a less degree of pungency. Sensations of 
heat and cold depend very much upon accidental and tem- 
porary conditions. Water which feels warm to one hand 
may feel cold to the other, if one hand has been held for 
a little time in ice-water and the other in water of a pretty 



THRESHOLD OF CONSCIOUSNESS 55 

high temperature. It is well known that one who is 
greatly excited, or whose attention is entirely absorbed 
by some object or purpose, may be severely injured 
without being conscious, at the time, of pain. Such 
examples make it evident that any law concerning the 
relation between the observed intensity of a sensation 
and the known intensity of its external cause must be 
subject, in the conditions of real life, to important limita- 
tions and exceptions. 

The Threshold of Consciousness. A stimulus must 
reach a certain degree of intensity before it affects the 
sensory nerves sufficiently to cause a sensation. A light 
may be so remote or so dim as not to excite the optic 
nerves, and a sonorous body may vibrate too slowly to 
excite the sense of hearing. Let the light or the vibra- 
tions of the sounding body be gradually increased, and 
a point will be reached where the nerves of the eye or 
the ear are sufficiently affected to produce a just percep- 
tible sensation. This point in the intensity of the stim- 
ulus at which the slightest sensation is distinctly felt is 
called the threshold of consciousness and also the thresh- 
old of affective stimulus. 

The sensibility of some persons being much more acute 
than that of others, the threshold of consciousness will 
not be the same for all, nor will it be exactly the same 
for any individual at all times, since the acuteness of sen- 
sibility is affected by the general condition of the body, 
by the state of the health, and also, to some extent, by 
mental conditions. 

Summit of Consciousness. There is an upper as well 
as a lower limit to sensibility, — a point beyond which no 



$6 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

amount of increase of the stimulus will affect the sensa- 
tion. However much the intensity of a light is increased, 
after a certain point is reached, the corresponding sensa- 
tion remains unaffected. The same is true of sounds, 
tastes, and smells. The distance between the threshold 
and the summit of consciousness constitutes the range of 
sensibility. This range is considerably more extensive 
in some persons than in others, and it may, by the use of 
proper means, be extended somewhat in both direc- 
tions. 

Relation of Stimulus and Sensation. Common ex- 
perience testifies that the intensity of sensation increases 
and diminishes with the increase and diminution of the 
intensity of the stimulus. But such experience cannot 
determine whether or not the sensation increases and 
diminishes in the same ratio as the stimulus. Experi- 
ments have been made upon the sensations produced by 
pressure, sound, and light, to ascertain the relation be- 
tween the increase of the stimulus and the corresponding 
increase of the sensation. It is proved that after the 
threshold of consciousness is passed, a slight increase in 
the stimulus produces no appreciable result. But the 
less the intensity of the original stimulus the less the 
increase necessary to cause a conscious change in the 
sensation. For example, a slight addition to a dim light 
will be observed; an equal increase in a much more 
intense light will not be noticed. The same is true of a 
weight pressing upon the hand, or of a sound, or an odor. 
In all cases, the increase required to produce an appre- 
ciable effect must be directly proportionate to the inten- 
sity or quantity of the original stimulus. When, how- 



QUALITY IN SENSATIONS 57 

ever, the intensity of the stimulus has reached a certain 
height, any additional increase produces no effect upon 
the intensity of the sensation. 

Weber's Laws. The experiments of Weber, fol- 
lowed by Fechner, established, in substance, the follow- 
ing: In order that the sensations may increase in an 
arithmetical ratio of 1,2, 3, 4, and so on, the stimulus 
must be increased in a geometrical ratio of I, 2, 4, 8, 
16, and so on. This general law is regarded as only ap- 
proximately correct, and it will hold only when the 
stimuli are of medium intensity. 

Experiments upon the sensations of pressure show 
that any weight laid upon the hand must be increased by 
one third to produce a conscious change in the sensation. 
If the original weight is one ounce, a third of an ounce 
must be added ; if the original is three ounces, a full 
ounce must be added, and so on for any original weight. 
The sensibilit}^ to weight in lifting is much greater than 
in pressure, an addition of six hundredths or one seven- 
teenth being sufficient to change the intensity of the sen- 
sation. A sound stimulus must be increased one third 
and a light stimulus about one hundredth to cause a per- 
ceptible change in the corresponding sensation. These 
figures indicate only how much the stimulus must be 
increased to produce a just perceptible change in the 
sensation, but do not show the relation between the in- 
crease in the stimulus and in the correlated sensation. 

Quality in Sensations. Quality in a thing is that 
which makes it of the sort or kind which it is, and dis- 
tinguishes it from other sorts of things. The sensations 
experienced through each of the senses have their own 



58 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

peculiar qualities. The eye gives one kind, the ear an- 
other, taste another, and so on. Sensations received 
through the different senses are not comparable with one 
another, since only things which have something in com- 
mon can be compared. Some of these senses make us 
acquainted with but few different qualities, others with 
a very large number. 

Touch, Taste, and Smell. Touch, combined with 
sensations produced by muscular movements, pres- 
sure, and temperature, reveals to us the rough and 
the smooth, the hard and the soft, the light and 
the heavy, the hot and the cold, and something of 
extension, form, distance, and direction. These qual- 
ities will appear in different degrees, but will be es- 
sentially of the same sort. Taste and smell give a 
considerable number and variety of qualities. Tastes are 
sour, sweet, bitter, and saline, in many degrees. Smells 
are agreeable, disagreeable, pungent, nauseating, dis- 
gusting, exhilarating, etc., in varying degrees. 

Hearing affords an almost infinite variety in the quality 
of sensations. Musical sounds are distinguished from 
mere noises, the former being produced by regularly re- 
curring vibrations and the latter by irregularly recurring 
vibrations. Changes in pitch are caused by changes in 
the rate of vibrations. Different musical instruments 
and different human voices have each a quality of 
its own. Besides these there are the peculiar qualities 
of overtones, and many other combinations having their 
own peculiar characteristics. 

Sight. Sensations experienced through sight are prob- 
ably more numerous than those derived from any other 



DURATION OF SENSATIONS 5^ 

sense. The number of colors is almost beyond compu- 
tation or conception when account is taken of shades and 
tints. Color impressions form regular series as in the 
solar spectrum. There is harmony of colors as well as 
of sounds. In both cases the term harmony simply 
means that the qualities of the sensation resulting from 
the combinations of sounds and colors are agreeable to 
the ear and the eye. 

Duration of Sensations. Common experiences, as well 
as careful experiments, prove that some sensations con- 
tinue for an appreciable time after the stimulus has 
ceased to act. In such cases it is evident that the exci- 
tation of the nerve fibers does not stop instantly when 
the cause of the excitement is removed. This is espe- 
cially true of sensations of light and color. If the eyes 
are fixed intently, for a little time, upon a very bright 
object and then suddenly closed, an after-image appears 
which at first exactly resembles the object, but which 
passes rapidly through various changes. The after-image 
of a bright-colored object shows the complementary 
color. All are familiar with the fact that a glowing coal 
or a red-hot piece of iron, swung round at a tolerably 
rapid rate, leaves a complete circle of light. A disk of 
alternate sections of black and white, revolved with con- 
siderable rapidity, presents the appearance of a uniform 
gray. In all these cases, the result comes from the tem- 
porary persistence of the impressions upon the optic 
nerves, and the consequent persistence of the sensation. 

Two Aspects of Sensation. Sensations have two 
aspects, the one the aspect of knowledge, the other that 
of feeling. The two can hardly be separated in fact, but 



6o SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

may be partially, at least, in discussion. As previously 
stated, sensations are only the raw material of knowl- 
edge ; they are, at the same time, the sources of many 
feelings. Sensations are by some writers divided into 
two great classes of agreeable and disagreeable, while 
some others think a third class may be made, called the 
neutral. We have here been considering them only in 
relation to knowledge ; further on the aspect of feeling 
will be discussed. 

Two Steps of Progress. Sensations, being merely 
states of soul, internal experiences, give the child, at first, 
no knowledge of the external world. He is aware of a 
change of consciousness ; something has happened, but 
this change, this happening, is altogether within. Ac- 
quaintance with things outside himself has not yet begun. 
There is cognition of sensations, and presently compar- 
ison of these and discrimination. This is the first step 
towards knowledge ; the raw materials are being gath- 
ered. This condition can last but a short time, and can 
never be experienced in mature life. The second step, 
called perception, follows immediately. 

Perception. Very soon after experiencing sensations, 
■ — how soon, it is impossible to determine, — the mind 
commences to attribute sensations to external objects 
and influences as their cause. This is the beginning of 
perception. The nature of the process we do not know; 
but we do know that in some way, through the organs 
of sense, the soul becomes acquainted with the existence, 
position, distance, size, form, color, and other qualities 
and characteristics of material things, of the world of 
matter. 



A PERCEPT 6l 

Definition of Perception. Professor James says, '' The 
consciousness of particular material things present to 
sense is nowadays called perception.'* This definition 
extends the sphere of consciousness to the external 
world ; it is better to confine it to an awareness of the 
effect of the external world upon the inner world. 

Dr. J. M. Baldwin says, ^' It is the process of the con- 
struction of our representation of the external world." 

Dr. Davis writes, *^ Perception is the immediate knowl- 
edge of an external object." The form of the definition 
is not of special importance if the substance is embraced. 
We may adopt the following : Perception is the mental 
act of knowing immediately and directly external things. 
It consists essentially in localizing sensations, or in group- 
ing sensations together in some object of which we re- 
gard them as qualities. The mind can know of the ex- 
ternal world, its objects and forces, only those qualities 
and characteristics which impress some one or more of 
the senses, and thus cause sensations. It is not sub- 
stance which is perceived, but the qualities of substance. 

A Percept. The complete psychical product of the 
act of perceiving is called a percept. Perception is a com- 
plex process and the resulting percept is also exceedingly 
complex. It contains not only the qualities and charac- 
teristics discovered through the present sensations, but 
also a great number of qualities, associated with these, 
which are now recalled by the power of association, and 
mingled with the sensations experienced at the present 
time. A familiar example will illustrate this complex 
process. A peach is placed before me, but at such a dis- 
tance that I discover it only by the sense of sight. The 



62 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

sensations of sight reveal to me an object of a familiar 
form, size, and external appearance. By these I recognize 
the object as probably a peach. But with the qualities 
with which sight now makes me acquainted, the qualities 
learned through the other senses are mingled. I have 
the sensations of taste, of smell, and of touch. The 
character of the rind, the pulp, the pit, indeed of every 
peculiarity associated with the peach, is present. All 
these things enter into the percept, giving a most com- 
plex and possibly confused mass of present and past sen- 
sations. All percepts of common objects are of this sort, 
composed as largely of representative as of presentative 
qualities. 

The Conditions of Perception are (i) a physical or- 
ganism susceptible of receiving impressions from external 
objects and influences and transmitting these inward to 
the great nerve center ; (2) objects and influences to im- 
press or excite this organism so as to produce sensations ; 
(3) an intelligence immediately conscious of the sensa- 
tions and able to translate them into percepts. Two of 
the conditions are physical, and the third is psychical. 
Sensations are the necessary antecedents of perception, 
and, with the mature mind, perception is, in most cases, 
the necessary and immediate result of sensation. It is 
possible for the mind to be so preoccupied that sensa- 
tions go unnoticed and perception does not follow. 

Perceptions through the Different Senses. It is im- 
possible to give anything like a complete discussion, in 
an elementary work upon psychology, of the subject of 
perception or of its relation to the higher psychical 
activities. Consequently only brief statements can 



PERCEPTIONS THROUGH THE DIFFERENT SENSES 63 

be made of the knowledge derived through the various 
senses. 

Perceptions of Taste. Taste and smell are the lowest 
of the senses ; their activities relate rather to the phys- 
ical than to the psychical life. Taste distinguishes sen- 
sations of flavor: the sweet, the sour, the bitter, and the 
salt, and various others of a complex nature. For certain 
commercial purposes the sense of taste is cultivated 
to a very high degree, in connection with that of smell. 

Perceptions of Smell. The sensations of smell cannot 
easily be described or classified. They are grouped to- 
gether under the name of odors, and can be known only 
by personal experience. Odors are called agreeable and 
disagreeable, pleasant and pungent, and so on. One 
most important function of the sense of smell is to de- 
tect the presence of things harmful to health and unfavor- 
able to physical enjoyment. Odors are associated with 
the objects which emit them and are, in many cases, 
named from these objects. In a few cases of the deaf 
and blind the sense of smell has been cultivated to a 
marvelous degree, so that they distinguish persons and 
articles of clothing by the odor. Some of the lower 
animals, especially the dog, greatly surpass man in the 
acuteness of the sense of smell. 

Touch and Muscular Movements. Touch is one of 
those indefinite terms whose meaning it is difficult to 
limit satisfactorily. Passive touch indicates that we re- 
ceive impressions, are ourselves touched. Active touch 
means that we put forth effort, that we touch other 
things. Moving the fingers over a surface, we learn 
whether it is rough or smooth, hot or cold. Pressing 



64 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

upon the surface, we discover whether it is hard or soft, 
elastic or rigid. Lifting an object, we learn by the 
muscular effort put forth, whether it is heavy or light. 
We get the same knowledge by allowing the object to 
press upon the hand when the hand is lying on the 
table. The mere movement of portions of the body by 
muscular contraction gives local sensations, and sensa- 
tions of greater or less massiveness. 

Perception of Extension, Direction, etc. At first a 
child appears to have no idea of distance ; he reaches for 
objects at the further side of the room, or at any other 
distance, as readily as for things near at hand. Probably 
the idea of distance comes at first in consequence of 
movements of the hands and arms in reaching for objects ; 
and a little later from the movement of the whole body 
in creeping and walking to get possession of things. 
Touch alone affords the idea of short local distances. 
The points of a pair of compasses, touching the skin at 
different distances apart, give the perception of short 
distances, and of the comparative sensitiveness of the 
skin on various parts of the body. 

The size or extent of small objects is learned by mus- 
cular movements. The hands are passed over and around 
the object, marking its outlines and limits. The amount 
of muscular effort necessary to execute the movements 
affords the idea of size. The perception of the three 
dimensions is obtained in the same way. In estimating 
greater distances touch gives but little assistance even 
when aided by muscular action. 

The notion of space seems to be necessarily associated 
with the knowledge of the existence of material objects. 



PERCEPTIONS OF SIGHT 65 

The objects are somewhere, and that somewhere we agree 
to call space. The extent of objects suggests the exten- 
sion of space to a limited degree. The idea of infinite 
or unlimited space is obtained by a different process, so 
far as it can be comprehended. 

Perceptions of Sight. Primarily sight gives percepts 
of color, and, by the aid of color, form is learned, and 
limited extension. 

The location or position of objects near by is learned 
through sight by the aid of muscular movement and 
touch. The eyes are turned up and down, to the right 
and left, by the proper muscles, and at the same time 
the hands and arms are moved. Beginning with the 
knowledge derived through touch and muscular effort, 
we learn by experience and observation to judge of dis- 
tance by sight. After sufficient experience, the differ- 
ences in the effort necessary to focus the eyes to see near 
and remote objects aids in determining their distance 
with a moderate degree of accuracy. Some of the usual 
means of helping to form estimates of the distance of 
remote objects are the following: 

(i) The sharpness or dimness of the outlines of objects. 
These outlines are marked by light and shade. 

(2) The intensity of the sensations if the objects are 
bright in color, or have other peculiar features. 

(3) The number of intervening objects and the distinct- 
ness or dimness of these objects. It is important that 
the objects be of the familiar sort. 

(4) The rate of the real or apparent movement of ob- 
jects across the field of vision. A common example of 
such movement is experienced in watching objects from 

S 



66 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

the window of a rapidly moving railroad coach. The 
power to judge correctly of distance by sight alone is 
acquired only by careful observation and training. 

Perceptions by Hearing. The primary office of the 
ear is to make us acquainted with sounds. By hearing 
we distinguish pitch, quality, intensity, harmony, and all 
other characteristics of sounds. By quality the source or 
cause of sounds is known, so that the voices of different 
persons and the tones of the various kinds of musical 
instruments are recognized. 

After considerable experience we are able to locate 
sounds, or rather their sources, in space, with a fair 
degree of accuracy. Direction is determined by turning 
the head in different directions and listening with first 
one ear, and then the other. We judge of the distance 
of the source by the intensity of the sound if we are sure 
of the origin of it ; if we are uncertain of this we are very 
liable to error. 

Another interesting office of the ear is to enable us to 
measure time or to judge of time relations. This in- 
volves a knowledge of rhythmic movements, the ear 
noting the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented 
sounds. 

Acquired Perceptions. Each of the special senses 
has original or native power to furnish a kind of knowl- 
edge peculiar to itself and not given originally by any of 
the other senses. An important fact with which we are 
all familiar remains to be noticed. We find, in many 
cases in practical life, one sense doing the work of another 
by an acquired power. The possibility of the acquisition 
of such power is a most beneficent provision ; without 



LAURA BRIDGMAN AND OTHERS 6/ 

this the loss of any sense would be an irreparable 
misfortune. As things are, touch and hearing come to 
the aid of the blind ; touch and sight to the help of the 
deaf. 

Examples of such acquired power are so common that 
they will readily occur to any one. We say an object 
looks rough or smooth, light or heavy, hot or cold, 
judging by sight of qualities originally learned by touch 
and muscular exertion. We tap lightly with a ham- 
mer on the wall of a room and pronounce it hollow 
or solid ; we strike the end of a barrel with a stick or the 
foot to determine whether it is full or empty, employ- 
ing the ear to gain information which the eye gave us at 
first. The physician taps the chest of his patient, or uses 
on it an instrument adapted to the ear, and decides upon 
the condition of the lungs. 

Laura Bridgman and Others. One of the most re- 
markable and interesting examples of the ability of one 
sense to supply the place of another, and even of two or 
three others, is found in the story of the life and educa- 
tion of Laura Bridgman. At a very early age she was 
deprived of the senses of sight and hearing and almost 
entirely of the sense of smell. Through the sense of 
touch alone she mastered all the common branches of 
study. She recognized her friends by touching their 
hands or their clothes. Her biographer says : ^' She 
knows how different people laugh, and often speaks of 
the sweet smile of one and another. It may be thought 
that she must be always feeling of the face, and thus 
make herself disagreeable; but this is not so; she rarely 
touches it, and yet judges correctly.** It is said that she 



68 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

would recognize, '' after a year's interval, the hand of a 
person who had but once taken hers." 

Julia Brace affords another wonderful example. It is 
stated that she was able to sort out the clothes of the 
inmates of the Hartford Asylum, when brought from the 
laundry, by the sense of smell. 

The more recent example of Helen Keller is, if possible, 
more extraordinary still. At the age of about nineteen 
months she lost the senses of hearing and sight. No 
special efforts were made for her education until her 
seventh year. Placed then in charge of a very compe- 
tent teacher, her progress was almost beyond belief. 
Within four months she learned ^* more than four hundred 
and fifty common words which she could use correctly 
and spell with perfect accuracy." Miss Keller has mas- 
tered the higher branches of a college education, and is, 
in many respects, a most wonderful woman. 

Other Psychical Activities with Perception. A mo- 
ment's reflection shows that several other activities 
cooperate with perception in the formation of percepts. 
We decide that a present sensation is similar to one 
experienced some time ago. Here is an act of memory 
to reproduce the previous sensation ; an act of com- 
parison and of judging, requiring the help of judgment 
and reasoning. Other illustrations will readily suggest 
themselves. 

Perception of One's own Body. The child does not 
at first recognize the parts of his body as belonging to 
himself, or as being a portion of himself. He bites his 
finger or his toe, and is surprised that he feels a sensation 
of pain, that he is hurt. It seems probable that the 



ILLUSIONS, ETC. 



69 



perception of his body, with all its parts, as being his 
physical self, comes through the repetition of the experi- 
ence of pain. Gradually organic sensations are localized 
and the place of the sensation is fixed by experience. The 
child examines his own body for a considerable time just 
as he does any external object. 

Illusions, etc. We trust our senses, especially the 
sense of sight. But the old adage, '' seeing is believing," 

needs to be received with caution. 
Sight is probably more liable to 
report falsely than any of the 
other senses. 

An illusion is a false percep- 
tion, or a false report of some 
sense. There is a real object, 
something to be seen, for example, 
but the truth is not told about 
it. Professor James affirms '' that 
in every illusion what is false is 
what is inferred, not what is im- 
mediately given." This statement 
is open to doubt. Many illusions 
are so familiar that we refuse to 
be cheated by them. A straight 
stick, put halfway and aslant into 
the water, appears crooked ; but. 

The lines AB and BC are of 1 ^1 i. ^1 i. 

_ .1 1^ ,1, . , , as we know the truth, we are not 

equal length m each case, but ' 

they do not appear so. What is dcceivcd. The rails ou the rail- 

the explanation of this illusion ? 

road bed seem to converge in the 
distance, but we are not cheated by the appearance. 
One of the most common illusions is the mistaken 



B 

Ad) 



Figure IV. — III 
Length, 



76 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

judgment in respect to distance. A small object on 
the window pane is transformed into a large bird 
or some other large object several miles away. The 
wire screen at the door or window is projected across the 





FiGURB V. — Parallel Lines made to appear not Parallel. 

street or rods away, and the meshes are enlarged in 
proportion to the distance. The figures on pages 69, 70, 
show some of the various forms of illusion. The usual 
explanations are not in all cases satisfactory. 

Hallucinations are false reports of the senses when 
there are no external objects of the sort reported. Some- 
thing is seen where there is nothing to see ; some sound 
is heard where there is nothing to produce the sound. It 
is probable that in such cases the internal, mental con- 



CULTIVATION OF PERCEPTION 7I 

cept or idea is so vivid that it appears projected outward 
into space. The common belief that hallucinations are 
confined to insane persons is not correct ; many people 
in sound health experience them, sometimes for long 
periods of time. 

Cultivation of the Perceptive Activity. It is of the 
highest importance that perception should be cultivated 
in childhood. At this period the senses are peculiarly 
active ; children do little else than to see, hear, taste, smell, 
and feel. They should be taught to see what there is to 
be seen about them, the trees, shrubs, plants, flowers, 
birds, and animals of all kinds. The work is largely the 
cultivation of external attention. The studies and exer- 
cises of the primary school should be such as to exercise 
the perceptive activity as fully as possible. The natural 
and physical sciences are best for the exercise of the 
senses. Among these are botany, entomology, orni- 
thology, and geology ; one of these is about as good as 
another. 

Suggestions as to the Cultivation of Perception. 

(i) Supply children with the necessary material, but 
do not give too much at one time. Too many things at 
once distract the attention. 

(2) Teach children to begin with a single part of a 
complex object, and to examine the parts successively in 
a natural order. The trouble with most of us is that we 
look at an object as a confused whole, and do not ex- 
amine carefully the details. 

(3) Having taught your pupils to observe accurately 
and systematically, train them to observe rapidly. So 
much is to be learned and done that an economy of time 



"JZ SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 

and effort is desirable. Methods of doing this will readily 
suggest themselves to a live teacher. 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Position of thecliild ; influences acting. 

2. Sensation detined ; tirst conscious mental activity. 

3. Sensations examined, compared, etc. 

4.. Sensations not knowledge, only material. 

5. Sensibility defined ; distinguished from bodily characteristics. 

6. Conditions of sensation. 

7. Characteristics of sensations ; quantity or intensity ; quality ; 

duration. 

8. Intensity absolute or apparent ; examples. 

9. Threshold of consciousness ; range of sensibility. 
TO. Summit of consciousness. 

11. Relation of stimulus and sensation ; common experience. 

12. Weber's laws. 

13. Ratio of increase necessary. 

14. Quality of sensations ; examples. 

15. Touch, taste, smell, hearing, sight. 

16. Duration of sensations ; common experience. 

17. Two aspects of sensation. 

18. Two steps of progress towards knowledge. 

19. Perception, beginning of knowledge. 

20. Definitions of perception ; Baldwin ; Davis ; ours. 

21. A percept ; how formed; complex; the illustrcLtion. 

22. Conditions of perception ; physical ; psychical. 

23. Perceptions through the different senses ; taste ; smell. 

24. Touch and muscular movements ; qualities revealed. 

25. Perception of extension, direction, etc.; how learned. 

26. Perceptions of sight ; location of objects ; distance; means of 

estimating. 

27. Perceptions of hearing. 

28. Acquired perceptions ; importance ; examples. 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 73 

29. Laura Bridgman ; Julia Brace ; Helen Keller. 

30. Other psychical activities with perception. 

31. Perception of one's own body. 

32. Illusions ; definition ; examples. 
^;^. Hallucinations. 

34. Cultivation of the perceptive activity ; importance ; time for. 

35. Suggestions as to the cultivation of perception. 



CHAPTER V. 

REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION — IMAGINATION. 

Office of the Presentative Activities. The present a- 
tive powers supply us with a large part of the materials 
out of which well-defined knowledge is elaborated. These 
powers bring the outer, material world within the grasp 
of the activities of the mind. In studying perception 
we found certain other forms of mental action mingled 
with it in its work. These forms now claim attention. 

Retention and Reproduction. The materials of knowl- 
edge would be of no lasting service if they were not re- 
tained, and could not be reproduced when wanted, 
and in some way so represented as to be recognized. 

Hence the necessity of a group of activities to per- 
form these offices. They are named the Representative 
and Reproductive powers. Their functions are to bring 
into consciousness something which shall represent to us 
the things with which we have become acquainted, the 
material of knowledge which we have acquired, and to 
hold this for examination and use. 

Reproduction is especially assigned to memory, but, in 
fact, reproduction and representation cannot be separated. 
Every perfect act of memory includes representation, 
and representation, of necessity, involves reproduction. 
They may, however, be treated, to some extent, sepa- 

74 



EARLIEST REPRESENTATIONS 75 

rately. The special representative power is the imagina- 
tion. 

Imagination defined; an Image. The imagination 
may be defined as the image-making power. An image 
is a mental representation of anything not present to the 
senses, but particularly of past experiences. Visual 
images form the larger portion of our mental represen- 
tations ; in speaking of images we usually refer to these. 
But the recalled percepts of the other senses receive the 
same name. The name is not a fortunate one, but no 
better has been suggested. 

The term imagination is used in a very broad and also 
in a limited sense. Upon this point Baldwin says : 
** First, imagination is often used to denote the general 
representative function of mind, the power of repre- 
senting by images, thus including memory and associa- 
tion, as well as the constructive working up of images. 
Second, the word is often more properly restricted to 
this last process, that whereby the material of represen- 
tation at the disposal of the mind is combined in forms 
of ideal construction, which are independent, in a meas- 
ure, of the arrangements of external objects.*' The 
last is the function generally attributed to the imagina- 
tion. 

Earliest Representations. The recognition of objects 
previously seen by the child affords the earliest example 
of representation. An object previously seen is brought 
again before the child. The recognition of this object 
involves a comparison of the present sensations and per- 
cepts with the previous ones recalled and imaged, or in 
someway represented in the mind. The present percept 



"jG REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

of a white rose, for example, must be mentally placed 
alongside the reproduced percept of the same rose, seen 
at some previous time. The percept and the image are 
examined and compared and if they agree the rose is 
said to be recognized. The same process, quite uncon- 
sciously it may be, goes on when the child recognizes his 
mother and other persons about him. The same mental 
activities are involved in the recognition of objects and 
persons at every period of life, but the processes go on 
so rapidly that they are hardly observed. 

Recognition by the Name. A little more difficult 
exercise of the representative power is manifest when the 
child becomes able to recognize objects by their names 
when the objects themselves are not present. In this 
case, an image, or representation, of the object is brought 
into consciousness by the force of association, when the 
name is pronounced. For illustration, a child who has 
been taught the primary colors and their names, is 
directed to go to another room and bring a red card, 
selected from a number of cards of various colors. In 
order to select the right card, the child must represent 
to himself mentally the red card by recalling the image 
of a former percept. This image is compared with the 
present percept. The same processes are involved in recog- 
nizing fruits, flowers, and all other objects when these 
are similarly named. 

Representation in Reading, A similar but somewhat 
more complicated and extended process of representa- 
tion takes place when a person reads or listens to reading. 
As the reading goes on the pictures or images previously 
associated with the words are mentally reproduced and 



REPRODUCTIVE IMAGINATION 7/ 

represented. A succession of psychical images passes 
rapidly along before the mind. It sees a living panorama 
of objects, events, places, and persons moving before the 
mental vision. 

Real Representation ; Reproductive Imagination. In 
the cases here described, and in all similar cases, the rep- 
resentations or images brought into consciousness are 
intended to be as perfect reproductions as possible of the 
objects, events, and persons represented. The imaging 
in memory is of this sort. The act of memory is not 
perfect unless the recalled image is like the original per- 
cept, or as near to a real likeness as can be. This kind 
of representation is, for convenience, called real repre- 
sentation. The image will, in most cases, be defective 
in some parts ; it will not be an exact representation of 
the real object. But there are no purposed additions, or 
subtractions, or combinations. This is the representation 
used mostly in the schoolroom. Every lesson, to a 
greater or less extent, exhibits this work of the imagina- 
tion. A map drawn upon the blackboard from memory 
affords an illustration ; the drawing of figures for the 
solution of mathematical problems is another example of 
the same sort of representation. In the studies of history 
and geography the imagination finds abundant room for 
profitable and important work. Mountains, rivers, val- 
leys, cities, villages, and, indeed, everything which appeals 
to the eye, are imaged as clearly and completely as possi- 
ble. The progress of a pupil in some branches of study 
depends very largely upon his power of imagination. 

Ideal Representation ; Constructive Imagination. The 
work of constructive imagination will be best understood 



78 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

through a common illustration. An artist purposes to 
paint an ideal landscape. He selects accurate pictures 
or images of individual objects and scenes from widely 
separated localities. From one locality he selects a 
mountain, from another a valley, from a third a grove, 
from a fourth a lake and river, and so on until he has all 
the materials he desires. These materials he proceeds to 
combine to form his ideal landscape. When the picture 
is finished it may be said that every feature of this ideal 
painting is true to nature. Some features may have 
been comparatively enlarged and others diminished to 
render the whole more harmonious, but there have been 
no essential changes. What has been the real work of 
the artist ? What has he created, if he has created any- 
thing? Not the material which he has used. That he 
has merely selected and gathered. He has created an 
Ideal plan or combination ; he has grouped arnd combined 
:and arranged his material according to this plan or design. 
This is an example of ideal representation ; that is, 
representation in harmony with the idea or image in the 
mind of the artist. 

Another Illustration. A writer gathers accurate de- 
scriptions of places, events, persons, from various sections 
of a country, and even from different countries. These 
places, events, and persons had originally no connection 
or relation to one another. But out of this material, the 
writer produces a consistent and entertaining story, in 
which every part appears to sustain a natural relation to 
all the other parts. Each person, each event, each scene, 
falls into its own proper place, and the whole story pro- 
ceeds as naturally as if it were a narrative of real life. 



CONSTRUCTIVE IMAGINATION 79 

This IS an ideal literary production ; it is ideal representa- 
tion. As in the other case, the ideal of the artist has 
determined the construction of the story. 

Some Varieties of Constructive Imagination. The 
constructive activity takes different directions and makes 
use of various kinds of materials. It also subserves 
different purposes. 

(A) The Esthetic Imagination. The purpose of this 
form of constructive imagination is to afford pleasure and 
enjoyment. It appeals to the sensibilities ; it gratifies the 
taste, and excites the emotions. The illustrations just 
given of the painter and novelist are examples of the 
work of the sesthetic imagination. It manifests its power 
chiefly in the realm of poetry, of painting, of sculpture, 
of architecture. Sometimes it comes down into the 
province of real life, and aids in adorning and decorating 
our homes with its beautiful and tasteful creations. 
When the imagination is spoken of without any special 
designation this form is usually in mind. 

(B) Scientific Imagination. Imagination is of great 
service in the domain of science. It constructs theories 
in accordance with which the scientist directs his efforts. 
He gathers up isolated and apparently disconnected facts, 
scattered here and there, without order or value, and 
combines them into ingenious hypotheses ; out of such 
hypotheses he constructs bridges across the gulf between 
the known and established and the problematical and 
possible. By and by many of these hypotheses are trans- 
formed, by the students of science, into plausible theories, 
and later into accepted scientific knowledge. ' 

Constructive imagination is of the greatest service in 



8o REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

the realm of discovery and invention. Working in this 
region it might be called practical imagination. The 
image-making power is always present whenever invent- 
ive activity is exerted. In writing, one pictures or 
images the word before it is written. I stretch forth my 
arm, but the movement is imaged before it is performed. 
I move across the room, but the movement was ideal 
before it became practical. 

The following is borrowed from Sir Benjamin Brodie, 
at one time president of the Royal Society in England. 
** Physical investigation, more than anything besides, 
helps to teach us the actual value and right use of the 
imagination — of that wondrous faculty, which, when left 
to ramble uncontrolled, leads us astray into a wilderness 
of perplexities and errors, a land of mists and shadows ; 
but which, properly controlled by experience and reflec- 
tion, becomes the noblest attribute of man, the source of 
poetic genius, the instrument of discovery in science, 
without the aid of which Newton would never have in- 
vented fluxions, nor Davy have decomposed the earths 
and alkalis, nor would Columbus have found another con- 
tinent.'' 

Passive and Active Imagination. Another division of 
the imagination is into the passive or receptive and the 
active or creative. When reading a prose work of the 
imagination written by another, or a poem of an imagi- 
native character, the scenes, events, and personages de- 
scribed are imaged by our own imagination. The pic- 
turing goes on as the reading proceeds, and the process 
IS entirely directed and controlled by the contents of the 
story or the poem. The will of the reader is in abeyance ; 



IMAGINATION LIMITED 8l 

there is no positive exertion of power, nor any purpose 
or end of his own to be attained. This process is of 
some service provided it be not too long continued ; it 
serves as a preparation for the active exercise of the 
imaginative power. The child passes through this stage, 
but very early begins to make combinations and images 
of his own. This form of image-making activity, if it can 
properly be called activity, is very nearly related to rev- 
erie, though in reverie there is no creation of a consistent 
whole, while here there is such a whole, although it is a 
borrowed one and built altogether by another. 

The active imagination has already been sufficiently de- 
scribed, since every variety of constructive imagination 
must necessarily be of the active kind. Voluntary exer- 
tion and positive putting forth of conscious activity are 
always involved. The direction which the active imagi- 
nation shall take in its creations will depend upon the 
original nature of the individual, upon his environment 
and upon the materials with which his education and 
training have furnished him. The images created, how- 
ever complex and curious, must be fashioned from the 
materials which have been collected ; and this collection 
is made chiefly, though not exclusively, by the perceptive 
powers. 

Imagination Limited. As previously stated, the imag- 
ination creates none of the material with which it does 
its work. It is in the condition of an architect who must 
use such material as his employer chooses to furnish. As 
just remarked, much the larger part of this material is 
supplied by the senses, the perceptive activities. The 
more active and the better trained the senses are, the 



82 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

larger in amount and richer in kind the gathered matter 
will be, and the better fitted for the use of the imagi- 
nation. 

Since so much of the material is obtained through the 
sense of sight, it follows that one always blind can form 
no visual images ; one always deaf will be unable to 
form images of sound. The same would be true of the 
other senses. 

// is impossible to imagine conditions entirely unlike 
those by which we have been surrounded. We may enlarge 
or diminish objects and combine them at our pleasure^ but 
we shall find it out of our power to create any absolutely 
new material. The descriptions of another world and 
another life, in books like *^ Gates Ajar," illustrate this 
truth. The landscapes are earthly landscapes ; the skies 
are earthly skies ; the gardens, the fruits, the flowers, the 
trees, the cities, the houses, the employments, the amuse- 
ments and recreations are all essentially of the earth. 
Everything is painted to appear as beautiful and charm- 
ing as language can make it ; but the language itself is 
the old, familiar language to which our eyes and ears 
have always been accustomed. This limitation of the 
imagination has not, in all cases, been kept in mind by 
those who have longed for a revelation which shall de- 
scribe things that cannot be made known to the human 
understanding in its present stage of development. 

Fancy and Imagination. The term fancy, or phan, 
tasy, is frequently used as synonymous with imagination. 
There is good authority for such use, but yet it seems 
desirable to make a distinction. Imagination, although 
its scope IS almost boundless, is still subject to law. It 



ABUSE OF THE IMAGINATION 83 

selects, combines, and arranges within the limits of possi- 
bility. On the other hand, fancy works according to its 
own will without regard to law. It unites the fantastic, 
the absurd, the impossible. It revels in the wildest and 
strangest scenes, and amid the most grotesque and ridicu- 
lous surroundings. It joins the head of a man to the 
body of ahorse ; the head and trunk of a woman to the 
body of a fish ; it creates centaurs, and mermaids, and 
other marvelous things, some monstrous and some beauti- 
ful. 

The so-called imagination of children, at the earliest 
period, is more properly fancy, though the line separating 
the two modes of mental activity is not always entirely 
distinct. In their plays children find a free field for the 
flights of fancy. The fancy of the girl transforms the 
doll into a living child ; the fancy of the boy changes a 
rough stick into a horse. Perhaps fancy contains the 
germs of imagination in the child, and only right develop- 
ment is needed to change the one into the other. 

Abuse of the Imagination. While imagination is one 
of the most useful of the psychical activities, it is pecul- 
iarly liable to be abused. The reading of certain kinds 
of fiction is to be condemned, not so much for their evil 
moral influence, as for the injurious effect which the habit 
of reading such works has upon the mind itself, and later 
on upon the character. The habitual novel-reader is in 
danger of becoming an indolent, nerveless day-dreamer. 
He comes, after a time, to live, if such an existence can 
be properly called living, in an unreal world. The actual 
world becomes irksome and distasteful to him. He loses 
both the disposition and the power to accomplish any- 



84 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

thing of value or importance, and becomes a burden to 
himself and a drone in society. 

It is not the intention here to condemn the reading of 
fiction of all kinds indiscriminately. Many works of fic- 
tion are of great practical value to the careful and judi- 
cious reader. It is worth while for the hard-working 
student and the weary teacher, occasionally, to read a 
good novel ; but let the book be a good one, one not only 
to be enjoyed, but adapted to cultivate the best and 
highest elements of the imagination and the taste. 

Cultivation of the Imagination. When the culture of 
the imagination is spoken of, reference is usually had to 
some form of constructive imagination. Passive imagina- 
tion scarcely needs to be cultivated ; fancy requires tam- 
ing and curbing usually, but both aesthetic and scientific 
imagination are susceptible of culture and improvement. 
The improvement will consist chiefly : (i) In developing 
the power to select and gather, with rapidity, good taste, 
and judgment, the material which it desires to use. 
Material is everywhere, and is abundant, but much of it 
is crude and worthless. It is important to select wisely 
and readily. (2) In developing the power of forming ideals 
or images which shall be full of beauty and excellency 
when they have been wrought out and filled up with ap- 
propriate matter. Many ideals lack in symmetry ; one part 
is beautiful, another part is commonplace and destitute 
of any charm. This want of symmetry and completeness 
in the ideal is frequently seen in the plan of a fictitious 
work. Some characters and some chapters are strong 
and well-developed ; other characters and other chapters 
are weak and insipid. Now and then a work is found 



CULTIVATION OF THE IMAGINATION 85 

which exhibits an ideal of almost perfect harmony and 
beauty. (3) In developing the power of rapid and 
fitting combination of the material in filling up the ideal 
or plan. It is of high importance to be able to see at a 
glance what objects will fit into and easily and naturally 
unite with other objects, what scenes and events will fol- 
low one another in a narrative in such a way that the 
whole course of events shall appear to move along sponta- 
neously, so that the fiction has all the naturalness of real 
life. 

This culture of the imagination is secured, as the cul- 
ture of every other mental activity is secured, (i) first of 
all, by appropriate exercise wisely directed. This exercise 
should, in order to produce the best results, begin in early 
childhood. As already stated, the fancy is naturally 
active in most children. This will soon pass over 
into imagination proper if rightly directed. The 
training of the child should be regular and progressive. 
Begin by telling short stories adapted to the age and the 
degree of development. After a little time require the 
child to reproduce the story, first in your language, and 
soon in his own language. It must be kept in mind that 
the child's vocabulary is, at this stage, very limited, and 
not much of originality can be expected. As develop- 
ment goes on, longer and more complex stories will be 
told, and more care will be required in the reproduction. 
Later the child will reproduce in writing, and will read 
stories for himself. Later still material will be furnished 
and the child will construct a story for himself. Further 
detail is unnecessary, as methods of working will suggest 
themselves. 



86 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

(2) Next, care should be taken to secure an abun- 
dance of the best possible material. This material will be 
obtained by the regular and continued training of the 
senses. Children should be taught to use their own eyes 
and ears, and to remember what they see and hear. 

Children's hterature of the best kind should be fur- 
nished for reading. Stories and fables, if the fables are 
well selected, will supply material. The character of the 
literature should change with the progress of the child. 
For advanced students the very best works of the imag- 
ination will be of great service. Good books are so 
abundant and so cheap that no teacher should recommend 
poor ones. 

(3) Encourage the formation of high ideals, not merely 
for the purposes of the development of power and exer- 
cise in composition, but for the '' conduct of life.'' It is 
often of great value to a young person to form a noble 
and pure ideal of character and conduct. The imagina- 
tion may do most excellent service in this direction. 
The life will never be better than the ideal. ^* The early 
visions of hope and the romance of reverie build ideals of 
excellence towards which we longingly struggle, to which 
we aspire to conform. What a man most admires in 
character is a sure index, if not of what he is, at least of 
what he would become. If his ideal be pure and true, 
then it is his guardian angel, ever leading him to some- 
thing higher and better. The ideal is ever higher than 
achievement. It flies before the real like a shadow, never 
to be overtaken ; it is the unattained and unattainable 
paradise of our despair. * Continually receding as we 
approach, it expands at last to the infinite, to God ; 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 8/ 

for the true, the absolute, and the complete is God him- 
self/ " 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Office of the presentative activities. 

2. Need of retention and reproduction. 

3. The representative and reproductive powers. 

4. The processes not separable in fact. 

5. Imagination defined ; an image. 

6. Quotation from J. M. Baldwin. 

7. Earliest representations. 

8. Recognition, object present. 

9. Recognition by the name ; example. 

10. Real representation ; reproductive imagination ; memory 

images. 

11. Ideal representation ; constructive imagination ; illus- 

trations. 

12. Some varieties of constructive imagination. 

13. (A) The aesthetic imagination ; examples. 

14. (B) Scientific imagination ; illustration of its use. 

15. Quotation from Dr. Brodie. 

16. Passive and active imagination ; value of the passive. 

17. Nature of the active ; direction it will take. 

18. Imagination limited ; illustrations. 

19. Fancy and imagination ; distinction. 

20. Imagination in young children. 

21. Abuse of the imagination; reading of fiction, etc. — not con- 

demned. 

22. Cultivation of the imagination ; consists in three things. 

23. Cultivation secured by exercise ; training of children's im- 

agination. 

24. Children's literature. 

25. Formation of high ideals ; value of these. 



CHAPTER VI. 

REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION Continued— 
MEMORY ; LAWS OF ASSOCIATION. 

Memory defined. The power of the mind to retain, to 
recall, and to recognize previous acquisitions is called 
memory. It is also defined as ^* the knowledge of a 
former state of mind after that state has already once 
dropped from consciousness." 

Retention. Strictly speaking, retention is not an ele- 
ment of memory, but it is convenient to treat it in this 
connection. Retention is a fact ; so much we know. If 
a past experience were not in some way retained, it could 
not be reproduced. How the retention is accomplished 
has not yet been satisfactorily explained. Various 
theories have been put forth, but they are only theories. 

Herbart and some others teach, in substance, that an 
idea once in consciousness remains in the mind, but, when 
not needed for use, sinks down below the region of im- 
mediate consciousness, and does not appear again until 
it is brought up by some law of association. This is 
essentially the theory that any form of mental activity, 
once started, goes on and on without limit of time. 
When this activity, by some means, rises into conscious- 
ness, we are said to recall or remember it. 

Another theory is that what we call an idea, or a psy- 
chical image, is only a form of mental, or nervous, activ- 



FACTS OF EXPERIENCE 89 

ity. When the activity ceases, the idea, so-called, en- 
tirely disappears. By this theory memory is simply the 
mind working again in the same way in which it has 
worked before. These and other theories are of very 
little value. All that we are absolutely sure of is that 
retention is a fact of experience. 

Importance of Reproduction. It would be quite im- 
possible to overestimate the importance of this power of 
reproduction. Acquisitions, however great and varied, 
would be of no service to us unless they could be recalled 
into consciousness, with readiness and accuracy, when- 
ever desired. Consequently it very much concerns us to 
know how this process of recalling and reknowing can 
be made immediate, sure, and reasonably easy. 

Facts of Experience. We are conscious that in a few 
cases the reproduction of a past acquisition is apparently 
instantaneous and without serious effort. A question is 
put to memory and the answer comes at once. Only a 
single mental effort, and that an easy one, has been nec- 
essary. We recall our own names, the names of our 
most intimate friends, the name of the place where we 
dwell, our occupation, the names of the letters of the 
alphabet in their order, and many other familiar matters, 
by a single psychical impulse. 

But in other cases, indeed in most cases, the answer is 
delayed for a longer or shorter period of time. Several 
successive efforts are put forth before we reach the de- 
sired result. The process is a roundabout and com- 
plicated one. Observing our mental movements closely 
in an effort to recall some past acquisition, we notice that 
one idea, image, fact, or circumstance of some sort, comes 



90 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

into consciousness, then another, then still others, and 
finally, if our work is successful, the thing hunted for 
appears. On reflection we discover that the ideas, 
images, events, circumstances have followed one another 
in a regular order ; we cannot escape the conviction that 
they were bound together by some potent, though un- 
seen, relations or bonds. These relations are named 
laws, principles, or conditions of association. They are 
the means or instruments employed by memory in the 
performance of its work. 

Upon this point James Mill says, *^ There is a state of 
mind familiar to all men, in which we are said to remem- 
ber. In this state it is certain we have not in mind the 
idea which we are trying to have in it. How is it, then, 
that we proceed, in the course of our endeavor, to pro- 
cure its introduction into the mind? If we have not the 
idea itself, we have certain ideas connected with it. We 
run over those ideas, one after another, in hopes 
that some one of them will suggest the idea we are in 
quest of ; and if any one of them does, it is always one 
so connected with it as to call it up in the way of asso- 
ciation.'' Illustrations of this process will readily occur 
to every student. 

The Laws of Association are conveniently divided 
into primary or objective and secondary or subjective. 
The primary are the relations existing between different 
thoughts or ideas, and also between different things 
themselves. The secondary are certain conditions of 
body or mind which contribute to fix the associations 
more thoroughly and permanently, and consequently to 
facilitate greatly both retention and reproduction. 



PRIMARY OR OBJECTIVE LAWS 9I 

Primary or Objective Laws, In an ultimate analysis, 
the primary laws may, perhaps, be reduced to two, the 
law of similarity and the law of contiguity. Most 
writers, how^ever, agree to recognize three, the third being 
the law of contrast. In Ufers's Pedagogy of Herbart, 
four are named. The writer says: *Tf I look upon a 
mountain scene, which has a similarity to one previously 
observed, the image of the latter will soon stand before 
my soul again : The Law of Similarity. The want and 
poverty of the Prodigal suggested to him the comfort 
and abundance of his father's home : Law of Contrast. 
After Pharaoh had released the butler from prison, the 
latter soon forgot what Joseph had urged upon him when 
he interpreted his dreams. Pharaoh's dream subse- 
quently reminded him of his own and its interpretation, 
and then he recalled also Joseph's request made at the 
same time: Law of Co-existence or Synchronism. If 
we have thoroughly learned in their sequence the (Ger- 
man) prepositions governing the genitive case, one word 
will draw into consciousness the next immediately follow- 
ing, because in committing them, it has always appeared 
in that order: Law of Succession or Sequence." 

(i) Law of Similarity • Similar things and thoughts 
are mutually suggestive. This law is very familiar and 
its value is well understood. It is capable of very wide 
application in the schoolroom and elsewhere. Illustra- 
tions are very abundant. For example, I saw yesterday 
a specimen of a peculiar kind of flower. To-day another 
specimen of the same variety is given to me. This 
causes me at once to recall the appearance and odor of 
the one I saw yesterday by exciting a repetition of the 



9^ REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

former psychical activity, and thus brings about the re- 
production of the percept of yesterday. This law acts 
regardless of place or time, with only the exception 
which is common to all the laws of association, — that the 
lapse of a long period of time weakens the power of sug- 
gestion. One face often suggests another, though that 
other may not have been seen for years. One landscape, 
mountain, valley, lake, river, or tree, frequently calls to 
mind another, even though thousands of miles intervene 
between the two. The solution of one mathematical 
problem suggests the solution of other similar problems. 
One principle of science recalls other related principles. 
All comparisons in writing and speaking are based upon 
this or upon the subordinate law of contrast. 

External Resemblances. In speaking of similarities 
and resemblances, we are apt to have in mind only exter- 
nal resemblances, such as are obvious to one or more of 
the senses, similarities of color, form, taste, odor. Cities 
resemble each other in location, climate, population, in- 
dustries, and architecture. States are similar in products, 
in employments, and in the character and origin of the 
people. Similarities like these are obvious even to chil- 
dren and afford a basis for some grouping in the study of 
geography. 

Resemblances of Influence. There are other more 
subtle resemblances not discoverable by the senses, and 
still recognized as effective in causing association and 
suggestion. The most potent of these is the resem- 
blance of influence or effect, generally connected with 
emotion or some other strong feeling ; this similarity has 
been called the ** analogy of feeling.'* 



PRIMARY OR OBJECTIVE LAWS 93 

A writer says : '' My brethren have dealt deceitfully as 
a brook, and as the streams of brooks they pass away/* 
Friends and water brooks have no resemblances which 
strike the eye or the ear. The summer brook, in the hot 
climate of the desert East, dried up, and thus cheated 
the expectations of the tired and thirsty traveler. The 
brook failed him when he needed it most sorely. In like 
manner false friends, or fair-weather friends, cheat the 
soul longing for pity and sympathy. The study of litera- 
ture shows great numbers of examples of this sort of 
similarity, and they add much to the interest of the com- 
position. 

(2) Law of Contrast. This is not so much a separate 
law as a special case under the general law of similarity. 
A careful study of likenesses always brings to notice the 
marked contrasts and sets them over against each 
other. The law may be stated thus : Contrasted things 
and thoughts are mutually suggestive. Illustrations are 
abundant. Sweet suggests sour ; the rough suggests the 
smooth ; the beautiful suggests the ugly ; the strong, the 
weak. An individual with some marked peculiarity puts 
us in mind of another person with a peculiarity of just 
the opposite nature. Starving men are said to be tor- 
mented or tantalized with mental visions of tables loaded 
with richest abundance; and freezing men are haunted 
with recollections of oppressive heat. 

This law suggests that in many cases contrasted ob- 
jects, forms, qualities, and general characteristics should 
be taught in connection. In geography and history the 
principle of contrast does most important service. 

(3) Law of Contiguity. This law may take the fol- 



94 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

lowing form : Things and thoughts coexistent or imme- 
diately successive are mutually suggestive. 

A more Fundamental Law. The law of contiguity 
may be regarded as a special case under a broader and 
more fundamental law, sometimes called the law of 
Redintegration. It is stated in various forms: The 
presence of any part of a complex thing or thought, pre- 
viously known, suggests the whole. Referring to the 
mind itself we may say : The revival of any portion of a 
complex state or activity, previously experienced, tends 
to revive the whole. 

Dr. Davis writes : ** Mental modes occurring together or 
in close succession, adhere, so that the after-recurrence of 
any of them tends to suggest the others. The suggesting 
and suggested states are dissimilar, but have previously 
occurred at the same time. This law of redintegration 
frequently involves the action of the law of similarity, as 
the law of contiguity also does.** 

The law of contiguity is of extremely wide application, 
and embraces a large number of related but pretty dis- 
tinct cases. The following are some of these cases : 

(A) The Relation of Time. Events are naturally as- 
sociated because they occurred upon the same day, or 
within the same week, month, year, or century. Men 
born at about the same time, or living during the same 
period, or active in the same events, are naturally grouped 
together, and the name of one of the group calls up the 
names of others. Usually, in such cases, some one man, 
more prominent than the others, is the center of the 
group. The events and the men of the same age are 
linked together and are mutually suggestive, especially 



LAW OF CONTIGUITY 95 

if the men were actors in the same events. Columbus, 
Ferdinand and Isabella, the discovery of America, and 
the year 1492 are so united in the minds of students of 
history that the mention of any one of them recalls all 
the others. In this and in most similar examples, other 
relations exist and are operative besides that of time. 
The number of events and persons who can be gathered 
into a group with the ^* Fourth of July '' as a center is a 
matter of interest and wonder. 

(B) Relation of Place. Men are associated with their 
birthplaces, with places where they have lived, where 
they have performed important acts, and where they died 
and were buried. Events are associated with the places 
where they occurred ; industries with the localities where 
they are carried on, and natural productions with the 
countries which produce them. Associations of place are 
of the first importance in connection with the study of 
geography and history. Very frequently the two rela- 
tions of time and place are united, and the strength 
of the association is thus largely increased. 

(C) Relation of Cause and Effect. It is probable that 
the abstract idea of cause and effect is of intuitive origin. 
But when two events occur regularly, and the same one 
invariably precedes and the other just as invariably fol- 
lows, either will suggest the other, even though the rela- 
tion between them were only that of time. But in such 
a case, the mind can hardly escape the conviction that 
the relation is deeper and closer than that of time alone. 
The more intimate the connection is believed to be, the 
stronger becomes the bond of mental association. The 
appearance of one event not only suggests the other, but 



96 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

puts the mind to searching for it, if it is not readily dis- 
covered. This principle of association is, for this reason, 
peculiarly valuable and fruitful in results. It finds its 
most obvious field of activity in the study of the physical 
and other experimental sciences. The rise and fall of the 
mercury in the tube of the thermometer and barometer 
is naturally and almost unavoidably associated with both 
the cause and the events likely to follow. 

(D) Relation of Wholes and Parts. As previously 
suggested, it is possible that the relation of wholes and 
parts, or the principle of redintegration, includes all the 
cases grouped under the head of contiguity, so far as the 
psychical activities are concerned. Practically, however, 
in the work of learning and teaching, the subdivisions 
given are found desirable in the case of elementary 
students. 

The external relation of wholes and parts is proved, in 
the school and elsewhere, to be very fruitful in sugges- 
tions and associations. A single initial letter suggests 
the whole word ; a single line or angle recalls the entire 
figure ; a single movement of the foot or hand brings to 
mind the whole series of movements however complex ; 
a note or two repeated enables the singer to recover the 
whole of along piece of music; oftentimes the hesitating 
pupil repeats the whole problem, or gives the complete 
statement, or makes a correct answer, if he can get only 
the first word. Abundant illustrations of a higher value 
will readily suggest themselves. 

(E) Relation of Sign and Thing signified. It is rec- 
ognized universally that '* the sign and the thing signified 
are mutually suggestive," but the importance of this 



SIGNS 97 

relation in early education is not fully appreciated. In 
the earliest period of his life the child is doing little else 
than learning what may be called signs. He asks the 
names of things, but these names are only signs used for 
convenience. All language consists of collections of signs 
and symbols. These signs may be divided into natural 
and artificial. 

Natural Signs. Among the natural signs, indicating 
feelings, are some of the cries of young children and also 
of animals, usually indicating discomfort and pain ; some- 
times comfort and satisfaction are denoted. Peculiar 
movements of the limbs and of the muscles of the face 
suggest pain or pleasure. Certain movements of the head, 
the hands, limbs, and other parts of the body appear to 
have a natural association with certain ideas and feelings. 
The sign is instantly interpreted, and always in the same 
way, by all persons, whether instructed or not. Educa- 
tion has little to do with the association of natural signs 
and their meanings. 

Artificial Signs. The greater part of all developed 
languages is artificial. Spoken words, with possibly a 
few exceptions, are artificial signs ; written and printed 
words are entirely so. In learning to talk, the child, 
aside from the action of the physical organs of voice and 
speech, is striving to form a permanent association of 
certain combinations of articulated sounds with persons, 
objects, acts, and other things which impress the senses. 
In learning to read, a double association is formed. 
Written and printed characters are associated both with 
the spoken words and also with the objects which these 
signify. A book cannot be used by the child for the 



98 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

purpose of reading or studying until most of the words 
found in it have been so associated. 



Subjective Laws or Conditions of Memory. As pre- 
viously stated, the subjective laws are conditions of body 
or mind, or conditions under our control, which render 
retention more certain and recall easier. The following 
are the most important of these conditions. 

(A) Fixed Attention. Experience proves that the 
power to retain and reproduce depends very largely upon 
the kind and degree of attention given in the acquisition. 
Two things are necessary to make retention sure : (i) a 
deep and distinct mental impression, and (2) the largest 
possible number of natural associations. Attention, being 
the concentration of the whole effective energy of the 
mind upon one object, seems to act upon the percept, 
image, or idea, in the same manner as a concentrated and 
intensified physical force acts upon a material object. 
The effect is like that of a heavy blow as compared with 
the effect of a light one, rendering the impression deep 
and permanent. External attention should become ob- 
servation in the true sense of the word, and should be so 
directed that the impression will be not only deep and 
distinct, but also accurate and truthful. 

Attention selects. Every object or event has its sur- 
rounding and related objects, events, and circumstances. 
Of these there will often be a large number, some of 
greater and others of less importance. The attention 
cannot be given to all these, and it must consequently 
select some things and disregard others. The selection 
made by different persons will not be the same, and, as a 



REPETITION 



99 



necessary consequence, the facts reproduced by different 
observers will often be very unlike. This accounts for 
the varying, and sometimes apparently contradictory, 
reports given by different witnesses of the same occur- 
rence. The observers may be equally intelligent, equally 
truthful, and equally attentive ; but the attention of each 
one took its own direction, made its own selection and 
its own peculiar associations, and these determine future 
reproduction. The importance of attention, in its relation 
to retention and recollection, can hardly be overestimated. 

(B) Repetition. Some prejudice exists in the minds 
of many teachers against employing repetition, from the 
fact that it has been too exclusively used at some times 
in the past. But in the case of the young child repetition 
is an absolute necessity. AH the child^s early efforts at 
learning, from his first effort to speak the name of his 
mother until he can pronounce words readily at sight, 
are made successful only by a continued series of repeti- 
tions. No effective substitute has been found. But the 
process should be so managed that it shall not become 
irksome to the learner. 

The impressive force of earnest attention acts like a 
single vigorous blow ; the impressive force of repetition 
may be compared to a succession of feeble strokes. 
Attention determines, at the beginning, what objects and 
what ideas shall be brought together and by what relation 
they shall be associated. Some repetition is usually re- 
quired to render the union permanent. For example, if 
two objects or two persons are seen together once only, 
under very extraordinary circumstances to which the 
attention is strongly and intently directed, the association 

LofC. 



lOO REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

may be thoroughly fixed. But usually a tendency only 
to such association begins to be formed in the first in- 
stance, and several repetitions of the observation will be 
needed to complete the work of uniting, so that the sight 
of one of the objects or persons will be sure to cause an 
image of the other to appear in consciousness. The same 
fact is observable in other forms of mental activity. 
Under the spur of necessity an actor may commit a new 
part of considerable length within a few hours by concen- 
trating the whole energy of his mind upon the work. It 
is simply a supreme effort of attention, and this gives 
immediate but temporary success. The part will soon 
be entirely forgotten, unless this work of forced attention 
is supplemented by repetition in the form of review. 
Review is generally conceded to be of prime importance, 
but review is only a repetition of the original act of 
learning. 

The effect of lapse of time is well known. An im- 
pression made yesterday is easily recalled to-day, with more 
difficulty to-morrow, with much more of difficulty at the 
end of a week or a month. It is important, therefore, 
that repetitions, in the form of reviews, begin soon after 
the first impressions have been made. After a good 
many iterations, longer and still longer intervals may be 
allowed between reviews. 

(C) Associated Feeling. This topic might have been 
treated under the head of contiguity, or the whole and 
its parts, since the influence of feeling upon reproduction 
depends upon the tendency of the mind to recall the 
whole of any previous act or state when any part has 
been recalled. 



EFi^ECtS OF FEELINC lOt 

Most psychical acts and states of the adult mind are 
highly complex. In most cases, perhaps in all, acts of 
knowing are accompanied by states of feeling. The acts 
and the states become intimately and strongly associated, 
so that a particular act of knowing is habitually attended 
by a certain state of feeling. The more vivid the emo- 
tion, the stronger the association. 

Two Effects of Feeling. Feeling exerts influence in 
two directions. In the first place, it produces an effect 
upon the mind which may be compared to the effect pro- 
duced upon iron by heat. It appears to render the soul 
more impressible, so that the same force produces more 
effect than it would under other circumstances. It also 
intensifies attention ; and this increases very greatly the 
energy and effectiveness of the force itself. Attention 
corresponds in degree with the degree of feeling. The 
natural result is a more rapid and more permanent ac- 
quisition of knowledge so long as a proper equilibrium is 
maintained between the knowing processes and the feel- 
ing. 

Retention Easy ; Associations Lasting. Acquisi- 
tions made under such conditions are ordinarily easily re- 
tained and readily reproduced. Under the influence of 
very intense, but not overwhelming, feelings, an impres- 
sion so deep and well defined may be made that no repe- 
tition will be necessary. A day, a place, or a scene of 
very strong and peculiar pleasure or pain, of joy or sor- 
row, may be vividly recalled, even years afterwards, 
although none of the attending circumstances has ever 
been revived by repetition of any sort. 

Probably no associations are more lasting or more con- 



102 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

stantly active in the reproduction than those into which 
feeling enters as a prominent or predominant element. 
A little memento, worthless in itself, calls up at once the 
home of one's childhood, the scenes and circumstances 
of early life, the forms and faces of those long dead. The 
interest with which places are visited often has its origin 
wholly in this kind of association. Reverence and affec- 
tion for Washington make sacred his home and his last 
resting place, and deeper feelings of a similar nature are 
associated with Nazareth and Bethlehem. 

Advantage should be taken of the principle of associa- 
tion in the instruction of young children. The power of 
voluntary attention is so weak that it needs to be reen- 
forced by the energy of appropriate feeling. Anecdotes 
and short stories about persons, places, books, poems, in- 
ventions, articles of furniture, and other objects of study, 
are of great service in exciting and keeping alive such 
feelings. Care should be taken that only agreeable feel- 
ings are associated with processes of learning as far as 
this is possible. It is no slight misfortune when some- 
thing good and beautiful in science, art, literature, or 
life is associated with emotions of pain, disappointment, 
anger, or some still worse feeling. 

(D) Condition of Body and Mind. This is a subjective 
condition with which we are all well acquainted. At some 
times it is very difficult to fix the mind upon any matter 
of study, or to recall anything which has been previously 
learned. With some persons this condition is the natural 
result of bad mental habits, and indicates no peculiar 
temporary state of either body or mind. These persons 
have never acquired the power to control the psychical 



CONDITION OF BODY AND MIND IO3 

activities, and to concentrate them upon any object or 
purpose. So far as attention is concerned, they are in 
the condition of children ; they are examples of chronic 
cases of self-produced mental imbecility. 

The state of mind or body to which reference is here 
made refers to students and others who are supposed to 
have a fair degree of control over themselves, and over 
their psychical powers. With them this state of inability 
is exceptional. Efforts to do mental work at such times 
and under such conditions are usually melancholy failures. 

Sometimes the immediate cause is obvious. The mind 
may be preoccupied with other objects of observation or 
thought which cannot, for some reason, be dislodged ; or 
it may be overburdened with cares or anxieties which 
cannot be laid off by an act of will ; or it may be over- 
whelmed with some sorrow, or may be exhausted by too 
long>continued labors. At such a season the only thing 
to be done is to rest ; it is no time for work, y 

The cause may be altogether bodily ; may be in the 
derangement of the physical organs or their functions. 
The processes of digestion may be deranged ; the nerv- 
ous system and especially the great center, the brain, 
may be exhausted ; some nerve may be tormented by 
acute pain, or general lassitude and weariness may affect 
the whole physical organism. Under such conditions of 
body and mind very little mental work can be accom- 
plished. The feebleness of attention prevents the pro- 
duction of deep and well-defined psychical impressions, 
or the formation of effective associations. Previously 
formed associations seem to have lost all their suggestive 
power. 



I04 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

Differences and Varieties of Memory, Under the 
previous head of subjective conditions affecting retention 
and reproduction, peculiarities of mental constitution are 
sometimes reckoned. These peculiarities are so radical, 
so permanent, and so slightly affected by volition or by 
temporary circumstances or states of body and mind, that 
they constitute, in effect, original varieties of memory 
itself. Some persons remember colors and forms ; they 
have an eye memory. Others remember sounds, have an 
ear memory. In a few cases the memory attaches itself 
to the other senses. There may, consequently, be as 
many varieties of memory as there are senses. 

In some cases the differences are merely variations of 
degree in the general power of memory. Some persons 
are able to retain and reproduce acquisitions of all kinds, 
relating to all subjects, much more surely and readily than 
others. This may be called general memory. 

More commonly the difference is not one of general, 
but of special power ; the memory is called special. 
Some things and some classes of things are recalled with- 
out difficulty, perhaps with unusual facility, while other 
things are retained and reproduced only with extreme 
difficulty ; or there may be an entire inability to recall 
them. Such special differences manifest themselves in 
childhood, and should be considered in the demands made 
upon pupils, especially in the primary grades. 

Causes of Differences, For original disparities of 
memory, or of other psychical activities, no causes can be 
assigned except natural and inherited peculiarities of 
mental constitution. For differences appearing in mature 
life reasons can usually be discovered. If the differences 



ACTIVE AND PASSIVE REPRODUCTION 105 

are specific, as is usually the case, their causes are found 
in employments, professions, peculiar surroundings, the 
attention given to particular studies, and other manifest 
conditions. Mental activity has been concentrated, much 
of the time, upon special objects or subjects ; other things 
have been neglected ; the mind has been constantly filled 
with one class of impressions until it has become pecul- 
iarly susceptible to these, and comparatively unable to 
be affected by those of a different nature. Illustrations 
will readily occur of the influence of occupations and 
professions. The physician observes and remembers one 
class of things ; the lawyer, the clergyman, the teacher, 
the journalist, the scientist, naturally notice and recall 
other classes of things. The same is true of men engaged 
in all the various departments of business and mechanical 
activities. These variations in the power and direction 
of memory are the result of the general law of habit. 

Active and Passive Reproduction, In ordinary cases 
of reproduction there is a conscious directing effort of 
the will. A desire is felt to recall some particular past 
acquisition, and the reproductive energies are exercised 
according to this desire. This is active reproduction. It 
is true that previously formed associations will limit the 
total amount of matter which can be recalled by volun- 
tary effort, but, in most cases, it is only a small part of 
that which relates to any subject that is wanted at any 
one time and for any one purpose. The directed activity 
of recollection seizes upon such matter as is desired and 
rejects everything else. 

At times, however, the reproductive and representative 
processes go on without interference or control by the 



I06 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

will. This is sometimes called simple remembrance ; one 
image follows another without the intervention of will. 
The mind is passive ; it exerts no positive directing 
effort. Some passing object or event '' starts a train " of 
images or ideas, which come and go according to some 
law of association, the mind being passively conscious of 
their presence, and allowing them to crowd and jostle one 
another as- they please. The result is apparent chaos ; 
and the temporary combinations of images and ideas are 
generally incongruous and often amusing from their ab- 
surdity. This state of mind frequently passes into what 
is called reverie. Individuals of certain temperaments 
easily fall into this dreamy condition of mind, particularly 
during the time when youth is changing into maturity. 
The state may even become habitual, in which case irrep- 
arable injury is inflicted upon the mental activities. All 
continued and vigorous psychical action becomes distaste- 
ful, if not impossible. The power of voluntary attention 
is weakened ; the force of the will is broken, and the 
whole mental fabric is undermined. 

Improving the Memory. The cultivation and improve- 
ment of the memory are little else than the cultivation of 
right methods of study. That which is thoroughly and 
properly learned is usually securely retained and readily 
recalled. The suggestions under this head will relate 
mostly to the processes of learning. 

Consciousness and observation unite in affirming that 
our ability to retain, recall, represent, and reknow pre- 
vious acquisitions depends mainly upon three conditions : 
(i) Upon the thoroughness of the learning. If the mat- 
ter is presented to the senses, the percepts must be 



IMPROVING THE MEMORY IO7 

distinct, complete, and accurate. The cultivation of the 
visualizing power is of the highest importance. If the 
matter is presented by descriptions or readings, the 
images or concepts must be clear and distinct. No part 
of the subject presented to be learned should be left in a 
hazy, uncertain, and poorly defined state. (2) Upon 
proper associations and combinations. The parts or 
elements of the new matter must be rightly arranged so 
that they follow one another in a natural and logical order, 
the first thing necessarily leading to the second, the 
second to the third, and so on to the end. Then, by the 
process of apperception, the new matter must be 
thoroughly united, associated, combined with former ac- 
quisitions, with kindred material already digested in the 
mind so that the old and the new become an assimilated 
mass of integrated knowledge. The law of contiguity 
will be of very great service in the study of history and 
geography. (3) Upon the regular and constant exercise 
of the memory. The memory, like the other powers, 
can be improved only by appropriate and constant 
exercise. Make proper use of repetition, not simply the 
repetition of words, but of the processes of thinking and 
reasoning. 

Some Practical Suggestions. A few practical sug- 
gestions may be of value to young students, (i) Rec- 
ognize the fact that memory is of different kinds, and do 
not expect that your memory will be equally good in all 
directions, although it will be wise to seek to improve 
that which is naturally defective. Some persons have an 
excellent eye memory ; they recall easily faces, forms, 
places, colors ; they seem to themselves to see the form 



I08 REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

of a word they wish to write, or the page of a book on 
which a rule is printed, or a mathematical problem is 
stated, or a historical fact is recorded. Others have an 
ear memory, and easily remember names, notes of music, 
rhymes, and snatches of poetry. Such persons, if in 
doubt as to the spelling of a word, repeat it aloud or 
half-audibly to themselves. Some have excellent verbal 
memories ; others readily master and reproduce facts, 
principles, arguments, courses of reasoning, but always 
clothe these in language of their own. A few have 
extraordinary power to retain and recall dates, columns 
of figures, and mathematical problems and formulas. 

(2) Do not attempt too much, or require too much of 
pupils. Begin with easy tasks and let these be increased 
gradually. Verbal memory may be greatly improved by 
committing, for some time, a single line of poetry or a 
single sentence of prose every day, and repeating each 
day, as the days go on, from the beginning of the se- 
lection. After a few weeks, the daily lessons may be in- 
creased to two lines, and then to three and four. In all 
cases perfect accuracy should be required in the repro- 
duction. 

The memory of facts, principles, and so forth, may be 
improved by reading carefully histories and scientific 
works, and recalling and repeating, sometimes orally and 
sometimes in writing, the facts and principles in their 
right order. Persons who have some skill in drawing and 
sketching can improve visual memory by making draw- 
ings and sketches of places and scenes which they have 
visited. Be regular and persistent in all such exercises. 
Irregular and intermittent efforts amount to very little. 



SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS IO9 

The end desired is the creation of a permanent mental 
habit which shall make such labor a genuine pleasure 
instead of an irksome task. 

(3) Aim to retain, in all studies and readings, the es- 
sential and valuable. Cultivate the habit of careful 
selectioUo Only a limited amount of new material can 
be digested and assimilated at one time. An effort to 
master too much ends in mastering nothing. It is harm- 
ful to the memory to read a large amount of matter 
which one does not care to remember, and from which no 
selections are made for memorizing. 

(4) Infuse into every subject learned as much of 
genuine interest as possible. This interest, in many cases, 
may be only varying degrees of emotion. But when a 
higher kind of interest can be secured it will be of more 
permanent value. 

(5) A few artificial devices may be employed to aid the 
memory, but such devices should be used sparingly, and 
only such should be selected as exert an influence in 
harmony with some natural law of mindo Most of the 
artificial schemes for helping and improving the memory 
are useless, to say the least, and some are worse than 
useless. There is in human nature an inborn fondness 
for rhythm and for rhythmical movements. Such ar- 
rangements of words and sounds are very easily retained 
and recalled. Not seldom they insist on " running in the 
head,'* much to our annoyance. An example is found in 
the oft repeated 

'• Thirty days hath September, 
April, June, and November," etc. 

At a period not very remote it was a common practice 



no REPRESENTATION AND REPRODUCTION 

to sing the multiplication table ; and useless lists of 
geographical names were mastered in the same way. 
Such devices have been compared to *' pegs " or '' hooks " 
upon which acquisitions of certain kinds may be hung 
ready for use. Do not make much use of such ''hooks." 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Definitions of memory. 

2. Retention ; some explanations. 

3. Importance of reproduction. 

4. Facts of experience ; processes. 

5. James Mill's theory. 

6. Laws of association. \ 

7. Primary or objective laws. 

8. Quotation from Herbart's Pedag-o^v. 

9. Law of similarity ; illustrations. 

10. External resemblances ; resemblances of influence. 
'11. Law of contrast; illustrations. 

12. Law of contiguity. The more fundamental law : redin- 

tegration. 

13. Relation of time; of place; of cause and effect ; of wholes 

and parts: examples ; of sign and thing signitied. 

14. Natural signs ; artificial signs. 

15. Subjective laws or conditions of memory. 

(A) Fixed attention ; attention selects. 

(B) Repetition ; illustrations. 

16. Effect of lapse of time. 

17. (C) Associated feeling ; two effects of feeling. 

18. Retention easy ; associations lasting. 

19. Use to be made of laws of association. 

20. (D) Condition of body and mind. 

21. Differences and varieties of memory; general memory; 

special memory. 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER III 

22. Causes of differences ; some natural ; others acquired. 

23. Active and passive reproduction ; reverie. 

24. Improving the memory ; by (i) Thoroughness of learning ; 

(2) Proper associations and combinations ; (3) Regular and 
constant exercise. 

25. Practical suggestions ; i, 2, 3, 4, 5. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE THINKING ACTIVITIES — CONCEPTION; JUDGMENT. 

Use of Term Thinking. In common speech, the term 
thinking is employed to denote almost any form of men-, 
tal action. The effort to recall some past experience is 
called thinking. We speak of '^ thinking over " the 
events of a day or a week. Even the processes of im- 
agination are referred to as thinking. 

What it is to think. In its restricted sense, thinking 
includes only those forms of psychical activity by which 
the materials of knowledge, gathered up by the present- 
ative powers and held by memory in readiness for use, 
are examined, compared, transformed into the condition 
of real knowledge, and properly classified. Briefly, think- 
ing is the classifying of knowledge. It includes several 
processes which follow one another in a natural order, 
and which appear to go on spontaneously. 

Illustration. A crude illustration of tlie thinking 
processes may be borrowed from the action of the di- 
gestive organs in converting the raw material of food 
into a nutritive condition. Materials to be used for 
building up and nourishing the physical organism are 
gathered from all sources, and, after the preliminary 
operation of mastication, are deposited in the stomach. 
These materials, at this stage, are not, strictly speaking, 
food, but merely the substances out of which food is to 

112 



THINKING BEGINS EARLY II 3 

be manufactured. By the processes of digestion, circu- 
lation, and assimilation, they are transformed into real 
nourishment and converted into blood, bone, muscle, 
and nerve matter. Thinking does for the crude products 
of the acquisitive mental powers what these digestive 
processes do for the raw materials of food. It mentally 
transforms and assimilates them. It converts them into 
forms of classified knowledge. They become mental 
blood, bone, and muscle. 

Thinking begins Early. The thinking activities must 
begin to manifest themselves very early in the life of a 
child, as soon, evidently, as materials are furnished for 
examination and comparison. When a child says men- 
tally to himself, ^* This sensation is like one which I had 
a short time ago," he performs an act of decidingor judg- 
ing. This act must have followed a previous exercise 
of the power of comparison and discrimination. When 
the child concludes that he shall suffer pain if he puts 
his finger in the gas flame or on the hot stove, because 
these acts have previously caused him pain, he is reason- 
ing ; he believes, partly from experience and possibly in 
part from intuition, that the same cause will continue to 
produce the same effect. The early thinking of the 
child is, of course, exceedingly crude ; the activities of 
judging and reasoning are very feeble, scarcely more 
than faint inceptions. But that they are the real begin- 
nings of the highest and most complex of all the psy- 
chical activities, is abundantly proved by the questionings 
of childhood. At the same time it is evident that the 
thinking powers attain their full maturity and strength 

at a comparatively later period. 
8 



114 TPIE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

First Step in Thinking ; Formation of the General 
Concept. The thinking processes embrace three nat- 
urally successive steps. Classification cannot begin un- 
til a basis has been found. The concept affords this 
basis in the activities of thinking. Consequently the first 
step will consist of the formation of concepts. The term 
notion is sometimes used to denote the same thing as 
concept, and even the word idea is loosely employed in 
the same way. These general concepts or notions are 
named by such terms as animal, man, horse, flower, fruit, 
and others of similar nature, designated usually as com- 
mon names. When these terms are so employed, no par- 
ticular individual horse, man, or fruit is meant. Abstract 
ideas, which closely resemble general concepts in some 
respects, are named by such words as virtue, vice, good- 
ness, purity, honesty, and similar terms commonly called 
abstract nouns. Although general concepts and abstract 
ideas resemble each other, as already stated, they differ 
in some important features, as will be seen further on. 

Formation of Concepts ; Analysis, I have before me 
a number of apples. They differ somewhat in form, very 
much in size, color, and taste. I examine them one by 
one with great care, noting the qualities and character- 
istics of each. At the conclusion of the examination I 
discover that some qualities and features have been 
marked as found in every apple. These are called com- 
mon characteristics. It is discovered, also, that each 
apple, or each variety of apples, has certain qualities 
peculiar to itself, and not found in any of the others. 
These are called special and individual characteristics. 
This process of careful examination is named analysis, 



THE GENERAL CONCEPT II5 

and IS the first step in the formation of a general con- 
cept. 

Abstraction or Separation* By reviewing the work of 
analysis, I discover that I have been able to select any 
one quality of an apple, separate it for purposes of ex- 
amination from all other qualities, and devote my whole 
attention to this alone. I discover, further, that I have 
been able to select any one of the characteristics common 
to all the apples, devote attention to it, and think of it, 
not as belonging to any particular apple, but to all apples. 
I find I have been able thus to separate all the common 
characteristics. This process of selection and separation 
is called abstraction. In this case, abstraction is nothing 
more than concentrating the attention upon some partic- 
ular thing or things and entirely disregarding, for the 
time, all other things. 

The General Concept* All the common qualities or 
characteristics which have been discovered in the exam- 
ination can be combined or supposed to be combined in 
a single apple. This supposed apple is a representative 
of all apples. It contains only the qualities common to 
all apples. It is neither sweet nor sour ; neither red nor 
green in color ; neither hard nor mellow ; neither early 
nor late ripening. No such apple actually exists, or ever 
did exist, or ever will exist. It is purely a mental prod- 
uct. It is the general concept or notion to which the 
common name apple is applied. A general concept may 
be defined as the mental notion of a class or genus of 
objects. It stands to the mind as the representative of 
the class. 

Generalization, After the concept has been formed, 



Il6 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

all the objects having characteristics embraced in the 
concept are grouped together, and designated by a com- 
mon name. This is sometimes called denominating or 
marking off the class. Under this name are gathered all 
objects which have the proper qualities ; or, changing the 
form of expression, the name is extended over and made 
to embrace all these objects. This is generalization, 
which may be defined as the application of a common 
name to a large collection of objects because they all have 
certain like characteristics. This collection is named, ac- 
cording to the purpose immediately in view, a class, a 
genus, a family, and so on. We have thus the concept 
and name, tree, fruit, flower, lily, animal, horse, house, 
table, chair, and all other things to which common names 
are applied. 

Conception, The complex mental activity which per- 
forms all these various processes of analysis, abstraction, 
and generalization, is called conception. The process of 
forming concepts here described is that employed by 
mature minds in their investigations in science and in all 
studies requiring careful and thorough classification. The 
classifications of botany and zoology afford good ex- 
amples. In the study of these branches the student finds 
the general concept, as the basis of his classifications, 
already provided for him by those who have put the mat- 
ter of these sciences into its present form. Time would 
not permit the ordinary scholar to form the concepts 
needed for his work. He does only enough in the pro- 
duction of these to become thoroughly familiar with the 
processes. 

How the Child forms his Concepts* The young 



DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMAGES AND CONCEPTS 11/ 

child forms his first general concepts in a very different 
way and by a method which may be called elimination. 
An example will best describe the process. Suppose the 
child for the first time sees a cat. This cat is of medium 
size and black in color. The name cat means to the 
child now this one black animal. The term is not a gen- 
eral one in any sense ; it includes only a single cat. An- 
other cat is brought before the child, similar to the other 
in all respects except the color, which is white. At first 
the child will hesitate to call this new specimen a cat ; 
but noticing the resemblances, he finally consents to apply 
the name. The word cat now means to the child these 
two. He has, half consciously, concluded that color is 
not an essential thing in the cat, and consequently he 
eliminates or abstracts it from the notion of the animal. 
A similar process leads him to eliminate the notion of 
size and other special individual characteristics, until 
finally his concept becomes general enough to embrace 
all the cats of his acquaintance. Essentially the same 
process of elimination goes on in the formation of his 
concepts of man, boy, girl, horse, chair, table, and in- 
deed of all the objects about him. Most of our every- 
day concepts, in actual life, are formed in much the same 
way, and consequently they are subject to frequent 
changes. 

Difference between Images and Concepts. Images 
denote individuals; the image maybe very complex, but 
still it embraces only one thing ; it may be a person, an 
event, an object of any sort. The image usually con- 
tains a large number of elements or particulars. The 
image of a particular man embraces his size, height, 



Il8 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

color of his eyes and hair, cut of his clothing, manner of 
speech and movement, everything which distinguishes 
him from other men, as well as everything which he has 
in common with them. 

On the other hand the concept embraces only a com- 
paratively small number of elements, and those only such 
as are common to a whole class of objects of some sort. 
A concept cannot be pictured. A visual image ap- 
pears as a mental picture or representation of that for 
which it stands. In some cases we seem to ourselves to 
form a dim and shadowy mental picture of a general 
concept ; but as soon as an effort is made to render this 
shadowy and confused picture clear and distinct, with 
outlines well defined, it is transformed into an image of 
some individual of the class represented by the concept. 
It is no longer a concept in the proper sense of the term. 

Intension and Extension. A concept may contain 
a greater or less number of qualities, elements, or 
particulars. If it contains a large number, it is said to 
have intension. But the greater the number of qualities 
in the concept, the less the number of individuals or of 
related classes which can be included under it. For ex- 
ample, if we were to put into the concept man the quality 
of color, all races of men of other colors would be ex- 
cluded ; if into the concept rose the quality white were 
introduced, all roses not white would be excluded. 

When the concept embraces but very few qualities or 
characteristics, it is said to have extension. Extension 
is just the opposite of intension, ^he fewer the number 
of qualities contained in the concept, the greater the num- 
ber of objects which it will embrace. The concept 



CONCEPTS AND ABSTRACT IDEAS II9 

flower contains only a very few elements, but it embraces 
a vast number and variety of individual flowers and of 
sub-classes of flowers. Generally as intension increases, 
extension decreases. 

Difference between Concepts and Abstract Ideas, Ref- 
erence has been made to certain resemblances between 
general concepts and abstract ideas. Let us notice here 
the differences. The concept always contains several 
qualities, and thus forms a sufficient basis for classifica- 
tion. The abstract idea or notion consists of only a 
single quality ; and consequently it would be useless for 
purposes of classification. Its extension is so great that 
it would embrace things altogether unlike in most re- 
spects. The notions indicated by such terms as virtue, 
vice, goodness, beauty, loveliness, and others of the same 
kind, are called abstract ideas. These words denote a 
single intangible and indefinable quality, regarded as the 
essential and predominating characteristic of a great 
number of material objects, or of many different acts 
and states of sentient beings. By the process of abstrac- 
tion this single quality is mentally separated from the 
various objects, acts, and states in which it is supposed 
to be found, and is designated by a name usually derived 
from an adjective descriptive of these objects and acts. 
Examples are abundant. From a number of objects 
called hard, we obtain in this way the idea named hard- 
ness. From many objects regarded as beautiful, the 
notion of beauty is derived. From tough objects, tough- 
ness ; from brittle objects, brittleness ; and so on indefi- 
nitely. 

From acts and states of sentient beings called virtuous 



I20 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

we get the abstract idea of virtue ; from benevolent acts, 
benevolence ; from kind acts, kindness ; from vicious acts 
and states, vice ; from selfish acts, selfishness. Illustra- 
tions might be multiplied to any extent. These abstract 
ideas are mere creations of the psychical powers, and have 
no characteristics by which they can be described or 
directly made known to the senses. Ideas expressed 
by abstract terms can be learned only through concrete 
examples of objects, acts, and states in which such ideas 
are embodied and to which they give character. The 
idea of hardness can be comprehended only by becoming 
acquainted with hard objects through the senses ; the 
idea of goodness only by knowing good beings, good 
actions, and good things of various sorts. 

Nature of Many Definitions. In this connection it is 
a matter of interest to notice the nature of a definition. 
In most cases the definition is simply a brief statement 
or enumeration of the contents of a general concept. If 
the concept contains a large number of particulars, the 
definition will be very long, unless the least important 
elements are omitted. For some purposes a definition 
consists of the name of the class or genus to which the 
object belongs, with a brief statement of its specific 
characteristics. For example, a rectangle is defined as 
*' a four-sided figure having only right angles." '' Four- 
sided " names the class of figures to which the rectangle 
belongs ; '' having only right angles " states how it differs 
from other four-sided figures, or names its species among 
the great variety of figures with four sides. 

Descriptions. It is interesting to observe that our 
familiar descriptions of objects frequently take the form 



JUDGMENT DEFINED 121 

of classification. € am asked to describe the contents of 
a basket placed before me. I say the basket contains 
fruit. This statement, if correct, puts the contents into 
the great class of fruits, and separates them from all 
other products of the earth. I sa)/, further, that they 
are grapes. This puts them into a genus, or particular 
sub-class of fruits, and distinguishes them from all other 
subdivisions. I add, still further, that they are Catawba 
grapes. This completes the description, and also com- 
pletes the classification, by placing them in a particular 
species or variety of grapes, thus separating them from 
every other variety. It is, of course, presupposed that 
the meanings of the terms employed are fully understood. 
The descriptions by which absent objects are to be 
named in a game of guessing are often tolerably correct 
definitions, and the objects are frequently fairly well 
classified. 

Judgment. The second step in the thinking processes 
consists in the formation of judgments by the special 
psychical activity called the judgment. The judgment is 
necessarily active in the formation of concepts, and, 
indeed, it appears to be found in connection with every 
form of the activities of knowing. We have not, how- 
ever, yet studied or particularly described it. 

Judgment defined. Judgment is the mental activity 
which examines, compares, and decides in respect to the re- 
lation between things or ideas. It places objects or ideas, 
literally or figuratively, alongside one another, discovers 
their agreements and differences, and makes decisions in 
respect to these. Objects of sight may be thus compared 



122 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

in respect to form, size, color, and all other characteristics 
discoverable by the senses. The resulting decision may 
be that two objects agree in form, differ in color, are 
of equal weight, but of different material. In the 
ordinary affairs of everyday life we are more familiar 
with this mode of mental activity than with almost 
any other. We are constantly comparing things, discov- 
ering resemblances and differences, coming to con- 
clusions, making decisions, affirmations, and denials. 
All our real thinking takes essentially this form. Even 
in questioning, little else is done except to inquire what 
can be affirmed or denied in respect to some object 
of observation or thought. 

A Judgment, The psychical product of the act of 
judging is called a judgment. When expressed in words 
this is composed of two parts, — a subject, the name of 
that of which the affirmation is made, and the predicate, 
the words making the affirmation. 

Consequently every judgment must embrace two ideas 
or two mental products of some sort ; in many cases two 
concepts. These two are compared and a decision is 
pronounced in respect to them ; it is stated that they are 
in agreement and can be united ; or that they are not in 
agreement and cannot be united. If they can be put 
together, the judgment is called affirmative. Iron is hard ; 
snow is white, are examples of affirmative judgments. If 
they are out of harmony and cannot be united, the judg- 
ment is called negative. Iron is not soft ; snow is not 
black, are illustrations of negative judgments. Such 
simple and direct affirmative and negative decisions are 
often called Categorical judgments. 



CONCEPTS AND JUDGMENTS COMPARED 123 

Singular and Universal Judgments, For some pur. 
poses judgments are divided into Singular and Universal. 
Singular judgments are those made concerning individuals 
or single things, as, ** John is industrious ; '* '' This horse 
is valuable/' Universal judgments relate to classes, as, 
" Honest men are trusted ; " '^ Birds are animals," '' Books 
are useful/' 

Concepts and Judgments compared, A concept is a 
simple notion more or less complex, standing apart from 
all other notions. The concept rose, or flower, or dog, or 
animal affords an example. On the other hand, judgment, 
in its own peculiar activity, must in all cases deal with 
at least two distinct objects, ideas, or representations. 
These objects or ideas may themselves be comparatively 
simple, or they may be very complex, composed of a 
number of qualities or elements. They may be percepts, 
images, or general concepts. Judgment does not create 
them ; it takes them as it finds them and uses them for 
its own purposes. In this respect the judgment resembles 
the imagination. Taking two such objects or representa- 
tions it ascertains by examination and comparison what 
relation exists between them. If the relation is one of 
likeness, if they agree in all essential qualities, it unites 
them by an affirmative judgment. But this union is such 
that each remains a distinct object or perception or 
thought. The combination bears no resemblance to that 
found in the concept, in which the elements are insepara- 
bly mingled together as in a chemical compound. When 
spoken of, concepts are expressed by single words ; judg- 
ments by complete sentences or propositions in which the 
copula joins the subject and predicate. 



124 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

If the examination and comparison reveal the fact that 
the relation between the two things is one of unlikeness, 
of dissimilarity, the judgment pronounced is a negative 
one; the two are declared to be incompatible; they are 
separated by the word not, or some word of similar signi- 
fication. But here, as in the positive judgments, there 
are the two distinct parts. 

Belief and Doubt, A judgment may be correct in 
form, but, at the same time, not true in fact. In the 
formation of judgments, however, the mind, dealing 
honestly with itself, intends that they shall be true. The 
statement of the judgment is accompanied by a condition 
of mind called belief. Belief is partly intellectual and 
partly emotional. We feel as much as we knov/, and 
oftentimes it is quite impossible to determine which 
element predominates. 

A judgment is true when its affirmation or denial is in 
accord with the facts. *' Truth is the correspondence 
between the representation of an object in thought or 
words and the object itself.*' Aristotle says, ^' Truth is 
agreement of knowledge with reality.** While we are 
often influenced by our feelings and desires, and things 
appear to us to be true or false, according as they please 
or displease us, according to desire or aversion, yet it may 
be affirmed that there is in men a natural, a necessary, 
love of truth. They may speak and act the false, but in 
their hearts they do homage to the true. 

Doubt is that state of mind in which the judgment is 
in suspense. The data given are not sufficient to enable 
the judgment to reach a satisfactory conclusion. This 
state of suspense must continue until additional material 



APPERCEPTION I25 

for examination shall be obtained from some source. 
Doubt can be resolved only by evidence ; it cannot be 
removed by an act of will or by the feeling of desire. 

NOTE. 

Apperception. The term apperception is used occa- 
sionally in our discussions. As the word is employed 
very frequently by some writers, and not always with the 
same signification, it may be desirable to state here the 
meaning which the term is intended to express when 
used in this work. 

Apperception^ in our use, denotes tlie whole of the com- 
plex mental process by which nezv facts, ideas, and ele^nents 
of knowledge of all sorts are taken into the mind, assorted, 
assimilated, and thoroughly united with the knowledge 
which we already have. 

It is the uniting of the new with the old in such away 
that a consistent and harmonious whole is the result. 

The term, though not absolutely necessary, is a con- 
venient one and will without doubt continue to be em- 
ployed, although the common word ^^assimilation'* 
expresses pretty nearly the same idea. The process 
denoted is that of the complete mental assimilation of 
the old and the new. 

Lange says : '' Apperception is that psychical activity 
by which individual perceptions, ideas, or idea-complexes 
are brought into relation to our previous intellectual and 
emotional life, assimilated with it, and thus raised to 
greater clearness, activity, and significance.** 

The old doctrine of the association of ideas, treated 
of in connection with memory, is nearly the same thing 



126 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

as apperception. The essential difference is that apper- 
ception implies a more complete union of ideas, percepts, 
and other related elements, than simple association 
requires. It is association and something more. Dr. 
Harris writes : '* The association of ideas looks merely to 
their connection, which may be a matter of accident. 
But apperception looks to the modification of ideas one 
through the other, and hence leads to the process of for- 
mation of ideas, which is the central point of interest in 
psychology and education.** The apperceptive process 
is a very familiar one when put into its simplest form, 
and described in everyday language. 

What one perceives in a new object will of course be 
determined very largely by what he already knows : by 
his previous experiences, by his general character, by his 
habits of thought and action, by his native or acquired 
tastes, and by his immediate purposes and intentions. 

A peculiar mental condition occurs when new facts 
and ideas are presented to consciousness which are incon- 
sistent with those already possessed and accepted. It is 
impossible for the old and the new to be assimilated and 
combined : they are out of harmony, and not only refuse to 
be united but are quite unable to dwell together in peace. 
A deadly warfare springs up between them ; one or the 
other must give way, and yield the possession of the mind 
to its rival. The idea that the earth is an extended 
plain and the idea that it is a globe cannot both be en- 
tertained at the same time. The man who is, by nature 
and habit, strongly conservative is likely to cling fast to 
the old and shut the door in the face of the new ; he is 
troubled when old, familiar ideas and beliefs are disturbed 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 12/ 

and discredited. He insists that the new must be false 
from the mere fact that it disagrees with the old. 

On the other hand, the man who is, by constitution and 
habit, radical and inclined to discard the old simply because 
it is old and has long been accepted, will throw the doors 
wide open to the new and give it most cordial welcome, 
even though its claims to acceptance are not yet well 
substantiated. 

SUxMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Common use of the term thinking. 

2. What it is to think. 

3. Illustration ; digestive organs. 

4. Thinking begins early ; imperfect. 

5. First step in thinking ; formation of the general concept. 

6. Processes of the formation ; analysis. 

7. Abstraction or separation. 

8. The general concept. 

9. Generalization. > 

10. Conception. 

11. How children form concepts. 

12. Difference between images and concepts. 

13. Intension and extension. 

14. Difference between concepts and abstract ideas. 

15. Nature of many definitions. 

16. Descriptions ; examples. 

17. Judgment; defined. 

18. A judgment ; affirmative; negative. 

19. Singular and universal judgments. 

20. Concepts and judgments compared. 

21. Belief and doubt. 

22. How doubt is resolved. 

23. Apperception. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE THINKING ACTIVITIES Co7ttinued—K^A'^0'^l^G. 

Comparison in all the Steps. In the formation of 
concepts, in the first steps of the thinking processes, qual- 
ities are examined, compared, and united, if they will 
bear uniting. A single complex whole is thus made 
which serves as a basis for classification. 

In the second step concepts are compared and joined 
to form affirmative judgments, or disunited to form nega- 
tive ones. The process of comparison still predominates ; 
only the things compared have changed. We come now 
to the third, the final step, in these psychical activities. 

Reasoning defined. Reasoning is the process of com- 
paring judgments. The result of the comparison is the 
production of new judgments. An example will illus- 
trate the process. We say : (i) All articles of gold are 
valuable; (2) This ring is made of gold; (3) Therefore, 
this ring is valuable. The following is an everyday ex- 
ample : We shall have cooler weather, because the wind 
has changed to the north. This statement contains two 
judgments ; one of them, '' The wind has changed to the 
north,'* IS a fact of observation; the other, '^ We shall 
have cooler weather," is an inference of experience, ap- 
parently based upon the fact first stated. Really, how- 
ever, it is based upon another judgment, not expressed, 
but tacitly understood, namely, *^ When the wind changes 



12 



8 



INDUCTIVE REASONING 1 29 

to the north the weather is usually cooler/' Written in 
full, this example gives a regular series of judgments : 

(i) When the wind changes to the north, the weather 
is usually cooler ; (2) The wind has now changed to the 
north ; (3) Therefore, the weather will probably be 
cooler. 

This last example, and others which might be given, 
show that we are constantly reasoning in the common 
affairs of life by a series of judgments, either implied or 
expressed. Usually one of the judgments is not ex- 
pressed. When the grounds for the conclusion are not 
fully stated, one of the judgments being suppressed, the 
reasoning is called implicit. When the judgments are all 
formally expressed, the reasoning is termed explicit. Our 
everyday reasoning is generally implicit. The omission 
of that which is understood and admitted by all con- 
cerned, saves time, and the conclusion is as satisfactory 
as it would be if the whole process were given. 

Inductive Reasoning. Two forms of reasoning are 
usually recognized, the inductive and the deductive. 
The mind has a natural tendency to pass from a number 
of particular judgments to a more general judgment, 
which expresses a law or principle embracing not only the 
few cases named, but also all other similar cases. Induc- 
tion is the mental operation in which we infer that what is 
true in the limited number of cases examined, will also 
be true in all cases which agree with those in the respects 
or characteristics now under especial consideration. For 
illustration, we observe that all the material things about 
us fall to the ground when not supported. We infer that 
all material things, in all places upon the earth, will do 



I30 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

the same. We observe that all perfect apples examined 
by us have five seed cells; we infer that all perfect apples 
everywhere will have the same number. We notice that 
dogs, cats, and all other animals coming under our ob- 
servation, having a certain kind of teeth, eat flesh. We 
conclude that all animals with similar teeth will eat flesh. 
Examples might be multiplied to any extent. 

The process is a natural 07ie ; it does not have to be 
learned or taught. Children go through the process spon- 
taneotisly. But the tendency among children, and even 
among some older people, is to make their conclusion too 
hastilv. The individual facts observed are not numerous 
enough to justify the inferring of a general law. Among 
such hasty inductions are the statements that *^ all men 
are liars,'* that *^ every man has his price," and other 
similar careless affirmations. 

The basis of inductive reasoning is the natural inclina- 
tion of the mind to believe that whatever is true of a 
considerable number of individuals, will be true of the 
whole class to which these individuals belong. It is 
sometimes said that the basis of this kind of reasoning is 
our belief *' in the uniformity of nature." 

Deductive Reasoning, Deduction is the opposite of 
induction. Having reached general or universal laws and 
truths by induction, we naturally apply these laws or 
truths to individual cases. This tendency of mind is as 
spontaneous as the tendency to induction. 

Induction is reasoning upward from the individual to 
the class or the general truth; deduction is reasoning 
downward from the class or the general truth to the in- 
dividual. Deduction may be defined as the process of 



DEDUCTIVE REASONING I3I 

applying a general truth or law to individuals ; or the 
process of gathering individuals into classes. The basis 
of deductive reasoning is the belief that *' whatever can 
be affirmed of an entire class can be affirmed of every 
individual of that class/* 

Deductive reasoning takes the following form, which 
has already been illustrated in the examples given. We 
say : 

(i) All men are fallible. 

(2) John Smith is a man ; that is, one of the *^ all 
men.'' 

(3) Consequently, John Smith is fallible. 

Such a combination of judgments is called a syllogism. 
In analyzing these judgments, it will be observed that 
the first makes an affirmation in respect to a whole 
class of persons or objects. The second asserts that a 
particular individual belongs to this class. 

The third, the conclusion, declares that what has been 
affirmed of the class may be affirmed of the individual, 
because he is included in the class. The first two judg- 
ments are called premises; the judgment which affirms 
something of a class is the major premise ; the one which 
affirms something of an individual is the minor premise. 
The third, as already stated, is the final conclusion of the 
reasoning process in any particular case. 

Demonstrative and Probable Reasoning. Demonstra- 
tive reasoning is that in which the conclusion is abso- 
lutely and unquestionably true. This can be the case 
only when the premises are true beyond question. An 
example of this is found when the premises are mathe- 
matical axioms or other self-evident truths. 



132 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

In all practical affairs, and even in applied mathematics, 
the premises are never axioms or propositions which 
depend for their validity upon definitions alone, but 
statements touching matters which may or may not be 
true. Such statements are called probable truths ; they 
are supposed to be true and are believed. But the con- 
clusions in all such syllogisms will be, like the premises, 
only probable truths, and the reasoning is termed prob- 
able. The degree of probability will vary, in judgments 
of this sort, from the barely probable to a strength of 
probability which practically amounts to absolute cer- 
tainty. 

Proof and Proving. In many, probably in most, cases 
of reasoning upon practical affairs, we announce only the 
conclusion. If this is questioned, we then go on to give 
what we call our reasons for the assertion. These rea- 
sons are merely the suppressed premises from which the 
conclusion has been drawn. This process is called prov- 
ing or making proof. In our own minds the premises 
preceded the conclusion, though perhaps nearly or quite 
unconsciously. 

Fallacies. A fallacy is an argument, usually in the 
syllogistic form, which, on its face, appears valid, while 
in reality it is not so. If such an argument is employed 
with an intention to deceive, it is called a sophism. A 
very common form of fallacy is illustrated by the follow- 
ing syllogism : 

(i) Office-holders are corrupt. 

(2) This person is an office-holder. 

(3) Consequently this person is corrupt. 

The fallacy here is perpetrated by employing the term 



INTUITIVE JUDGMENTS 1 33 

" office-holders/' in the major premise, as if it included all 
the members of the class office-holders, while, in fact, it 
embraces only a part of them. This is a very common 
kind of fallacy in political discussions. Other forms of 
fallacies will readily occur to the student who is familiar 
with school debates. 

With what Reasoning must begin. In all discussions 
and debates it is necessary that there be as a starting 
point some common ground, principle, or truth in respect 
to which all parties are in agreement. Otherwise the 
discussions come to nothing. So in all reasoning there 
must be some propositions used as premises, which are 
universally accepted. These are the fundamental judg- 
ments upon which all other judgments are based, or out 
of which they are evolved. These truths and judgments 
must be such that the human mind assents to them as 
soon as they are pronounced. The mind accepts them 
as true because, from the nature of the mind, it cannot 
do otherwise. These truths are the ultimate basis of 
reasoning, and of all correct thinking. 

Intuitive Judgments. Men are not agreed as to the 
origin of these fundamental propositions. Some regard 
them as inferences from experience, or conclusions from 
the half-conscious workings of the higher powers of the 
soul. Others regard them as intuitive truths or intuitions 
of the mind. They are, as already stated, truths of such 
a nature, are so obvious, that the mind recognizes them 
as true whenever they are affirmed, and assents to them 
instantly without reserve or hesitation. 

The following are some of the fundamental truths : 
The idea of what we call space springs up in the mind 



134 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

as soon as we become aware of the existence of material 
things. We ask for no proof of this ; we cannot do 
otherwise than accept the idea. There is no process of 
reasoning ; none is needed. The intuitive power of the 
soul gives us the notion when there is occasion for it. 

The concept or idea of time is also intuitive. During 
our waking hours, we are conscious that thoughts, mental 
notions of one sort and another, are constantly coming 
and going in consciousness. This process of change is ever 
repeating itself within us. In the world about us changes 
are constantly taking place. Clouds appear and disap- 
pear above us; day and night follow each other; the 
seasons have their regular order. Thus both by con- 
sciousness and perception we become familiar with the 
facts of change and succession. Thoughts within and 
events without are ever chasing one another. Under 
such conditions the idea of time, of succession and dura- 
tion, appears in the mind. It comes as the idea of space 
comes ; we accept it, not as a conclusion of reason, but 
as an intuition of the soul. 

The idea of cause and effect has the same origin. We 
see a movement of some body ; we do not ask that some 
one shall prove to us that this movement had a cause ; 
an attempt at proof would be an impertinence. 

The mathematical axioms are intuitive propositions. 
We accept at once the declarations that the whole is 
greater than any of its parts ; that a straight line cannot 
enclose space ; that things equal to the same thing are 
equal to each other. 

The idea of personal identity, that is, that I am the 
same person that I was yesterday, or last year, is doubt- 



INTUITIVE JUDGMENTS I35 

less intuitive ; we cannot prove this identity ; we do not 
require proof. That one cannot be in two places at the 
same time is clearly intuitive and axiomatic. Other ex- 
amples might be presented, but these are sufficient for 
our present purpose. The fact that no precise limit can 
be fixed to intuitive ideas and judgments, and that some 
ideas now regarded as intuitions may not be such, is no 
valid argument against the truth of the doctrine. Many 
modern philosophers reject the theory of intuition, but 
nevertheless one may be pardoned for still accepting its 
teachings. 

The following are usually given as the most important 
characteristics of intuitive truths: 

(i) They are simple ; that is, they cannot be resolved 
into other and m^ore elementary truths. The propositions 
in which they are expressed cannot, by any possible 
analysis, be made clearer or more simple. 

(2) They are necessary ; that is, a denial of them in- 
volves an absurdity. 

(3) They are universal ; that is, we can conceive of no 
time or place in which they are not true. 

(4) They are, consequently, primary and fundamental ; 
they admit of no proof ; there are no other truths beneath 
them more fundamental and necessary. 

In writing upon this subject Dr. Davis says : " Knowl- 
edge must have an ultimate basis. By a thorough anal- 
ysis of our cognitions we must finally come to primitive 
truths beyond which we cannot and need not go. These 
primary cognitions are simple facts of consciousness. 
As merely given, they are presentative, they are imme- 
diate ; as seen face to face, they are intuitive/' 



136 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

Reasoning, therefore, rests upon the ultimate basis of 
immediate and intuitive judgments. Upon this basis 
all sane minds rest and are in agreement. All other 
judgments are mediate, derived by some psychical proc- 
ess from previous judgments. The validity of these 
mediate judgments, when employed in the matters of 
ordinary life and in courts of law, depends upon the evi- 
dence of testimony ; that is, upon the evidence given by 
men, or upon the evidence of circumstances or conditions. 
Although our senses are sometimes cheated, the most 
satisfactory evidence is the testimony of personal expe- 
rience. It is difficult to persuade us that our own 
experiences, the evidence of our own senses, are not 
reliable. 

Direct Evidence. Next to one's own experiences, 
the most satisfactory testimony is the direct evidence 
of other men. Direct evidence may be defined as the 
testimony which men give in respect to what they have 
themselves seen, or heard, or, in some way, known per- 
sonally and immediately. 

In considering and estimating the weight of such direct 
evidence, two or three things are assumed : 

(1) That the senses are to be trusted ; that men see 
and hear what they think they see and hear. Illusions 
are ruled out here. 

(2) That men generally will tell the truth unless they 
have, in particular cases, some special motives for testify- 
ing falsely. The assumption is in favor of truthfulness. 

(3) That the influence of motives over human speech 
and conduct is uniform ; that is, that the motives which 
influence one man will influence all other men, or men 



CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE 



137 



generally, in the same way. This is not strictly and ab- 
solutely true, but it is so near to the truth that the 
assumption is justifiable. 

Circumstantial Evidence is the kind of testimony 
that is derived from an accumulation or a concurrence 
of conditions, circumstances, events, and acts, no one of 
which alone would be regarded as sufficient to establish 
the truth of a proposition. Such evidence, when sub- 
jected to proper rules, is as reliable and trustworthy as 
direct testimony. In the nature of things, such evidence 
must be depended upon in most cases of murder and 
other great crimes committed in darkness and secrecy. 
Some rules have been established by the courts in rela- 
tion to evidence of this kind. If these rules are regarded 
there is little danger of injustice from its use. The fol- 
lowing are the most important of these rules. 

(i) The fact or event to be accounted for must be es- 
tablished by direct evidence. Before any person can be 
convicted or punished for the crime of murder by circum- 
stantial evidence, for instance, it must be proved directly 
that a murder has been committed. 

(2) The existence of all the conditions, circumstances, 
events, or acts used in evidence, must be established by 
direct testimony. 

(3) The circumstances, or the hypothesis based upon 
the circumstances, must fully account for the thing to be 
proved. There must be no *' missing link " in the chain 
of circumstances. 

(4) There must be no other circumstances, or hypoth- 
eses, by which the crime can possibly be accounted for. 
These rules, as well as the assumptions in respect to 



138 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

direct evidence, are in accordance with the demands of 
the mind. Consequently they come within the scope 
of any discussion of the thinking activities and processes. 

Analogy. In some cases, a species of reasoning is ern- 
ployed called reasoning by analogy. This process of 
reasoning is not peculiar; the peculiarity lies in the source 
from which the premises are derived. This reasoning is 
based upon certain kinds of resemblances. It is assumed 
that, when things resemble one another in a considerable 
number of points, especially if the points are important 
ones, they will probably resemble one another in other 
points concerning which we have no positive knowledge. 
Analogical reasoning is closely allied, in some directions, 
to inductive reasoning. In other directions it is related 
to reasoning from conditions and circumstances. From 
analogy we infer that similar conditions will produce 
similar results ; that similar acts are intended to secure, 
and will secure, similar effects. Jevons says : '* The planet 
Mars possesses an atmosphere, with clouds and mists 
closely resembling our own ; it has seas, distinguished 
from the land by a greenish color, and polar regions cov- 
ered with snow. The red color of the planet seems to be 
due to the atmosphere, like the red color of our sunrises 
and sunsets. So much is similar in the surface of Mars 
and the surface of the earth, that we readily argue there 
must be inhabitants there as here. All that we can cer- 
tainly say, however, is that if the circumstances be really 
similar, and similar germs of life have been created there 
as here, there must be inhabitants. The fact that many 
circumstances are similar, increases the probability." 

We infer similarity of functions or uses from similarity 



ANALOGY 139 

of organs. The wings of the bird are used for flying; 
we should infer, if we did not know, that the wings of the 
butterfly were employed for the same purpose. The dog 
reasons by a sort of analogy when he runs upon perceiv- 
ing that a boy is picking up a stone. He has observed 
that a previous similar act was followed by another act, 
which caused him pain ; he infers that the second act will 
follow the first in the present case. 

Development of the Reasoning Powers, As previously 
stated, the thinking processes must begin to manifest 
themselves very early in the child's life. First, sensations 
are discriminated and compared and decisions made re- 
specting them ; then, percepts and the objects which have 
occasioned them. Later, images and concepts and all other 
psychical products. All these efforts at thinking will be, 
for some time, crude and exceedingly imperfect. The 
power of judging and reasoning correctly and safely is of 
slow growth, and reaches maturity much later than the 
powers of perception, reproduction, and representation. 
A great amount of material must have been accumulated 
for examination and comparison before the decisions of 
the judgment can be trustworthy. There must have 
been much personal observation, and enough experience 
to correct the natural tendency to come to conclusions 
as to resemblances and differences and to put objects 
together into classes without having studied with care a 
sufficient number of individual cases. The proneness to 
draw hasty and unwarranted inferences from faulty prem- 
ises must be cured by the discovery of repeated and 
ludicrous blunders committed in previous processes of 
reasoning, and sometimes by suffering the ridicule and 



I40 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

mortification to which one who persists in the perpetra- 
tion of such blunders is necessarily exposed. 

Suggestions. Specific rules for the development and 
culture of the reasoning activities are of little value. The 
best method of dealing with one child or with one class 
of children may not be the best method of dealing with 
another child or another set of children. Nevertheless, 
as the psychical powers and modes of action are essen- 
tially the same in all cases where the degree of develop- 
ment is the same, some general suggestions may be of 
service. 

(i) Exercise children in framing judgments and draw- 
ing conclusions concerning matters with which they are 
familiar. Formal reasoning upon abstruse subjects, or 
upon subjects which have no relation to their everyday 
interests, will be of little value, and may be injurious, since 
a distaste for the exercise will be pretty sure to be created. 

(2) Allow children to test in practice to some extent 
the validity of their own reasonings. This suggestion 
touches one of the questions which is constantly occur- 
ring, and to which it is not easy to give a satisfactory 
answer. How far shall children be required to submit to 
absolute authorit}^ in their behavior and employment ; and 
how far shall they be allowed to follow their own wishes 
and the conclusions of their own reasonings ; how far 
may they be permitted to depend upon their own judg- 
ment ? Whatever theories may be entertained by some 
excellent and enthusiastic advocates of '' children's 
rights,'* it remains true that the undeveloped and igno- 
rant child must be controlled by older and wiser heads 
and hearts, and must learn the lesson of obedience to 



DEVELOPMENT OF REASONING POWERS I41 

regularly established authority justly administered. At 
the same time it is true that the child will never become 
self-reliant and wisely self-directing unless he is allowed 
to do his own reasoning, to draw his own conclusions, 
and to act upon his own decisions within reasonable 
limits. The practical difficulty is met when these limits 
are to be fixed. The extent of the liberty granted must 
be determined largely by the disposition of the individual 
child, and by the consequences which will result, in any 
given case, from following the conclusions of an imma- 
ture judgment. The child must be saved from the danger 
of doing himself serious harm, while he may be permitted 
to run some risks of personal discomfort and temporary 
suffering. 

Touching another aspect of this question, a recent 
writer says : '^ Everywhere the same willingness to do 
what the public likes, and nowhere the question what the 
public ought to have. And this spirit must slowly under- 
mine every public function. We see how the churches 
are filled and sermons made attractive by sensational and 
trivial matters ; we see how the kindergarten method 
creeps under the mantle of the elective system into all 
our educational institutions and conquers the schools. 
The pupils learn what they like to learn, till the go-as- 
you-please system paralyzes the feeling of obligation and 
lowers the tone of the whole community.*' 

(3) Encourage the acquisition of good material for 
reasoning and judging in the more advanced periods of 
education, and in the employments and professions of 
real life. 

Like the imagination, the judgment must use such 



142 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

material as it can find ; it may create the form but not 
the nature of its structure. Students should be encour- 
aged to read much and thoughtfully ; not necessarily a 
large quantity, not a great number of books, but the 
books which contain much, and suggest much which they 
do not contain. They should read outside of their own 
particular specialty. The present tendency to study 
special branches and special departments, and to become 
specialists, is unfortunate in some respects, although it 
may be a necessity of the conditions of the times. It 
prevents that broad culture which is essential to the 
highest success even in any special department. The 
scientist is a better scientist because his education has 
embraced courses in language and literature. The lawyer 
must know a good deal besides that which belongs strictly 
to the profession of law. He must have an acquaintance 
with history, language, literature, and even science, if he 
expects to attain a hi^^h rank in his vocation. The same 
IS true, though in a little less degree, of the physician. 
The specialist in medicine will be a wiser and safer prac- 
titioner if he has known something of what is called 
*^ general practice.'* A friend of mine, a specialist in 
nervous and mental diseases, sometimes affirmed that the 
number of men sane in all directions is very small. 
Many specialists illustrate the familiar saying that *^ we 
usually find what we look for." Students should be 
warned to guard against this unfortunate tendency, and 
should be incited to make their culture as broad and as 
deep as possible. These suggestions will be sufficient to 
indicate some of the directions which the culture of the 
reasoning powers should take. 



REASONING ON MORAL QUESTIONS I43 

Reasoning on Moral Questions. In discussing the 
topic of children's judging and reasoning, Mr. Sully says, 
"It would not do to allow a young child with his limited 
experience to decide what is possible or probable in a 
given case ; and still less to permit him to pronounce on 
the Tightness or wrongness of an action." The prime 
difficulty with the reasoning of a child upon moral ques- 
tions is that he has, at his period of life, no proper stand- 
ard by which questions of right and wrong can be justly 
decided. In actual life many persons are, in this respect, 
very much in the condition of children. It is a part of 
the legitimate business of the schools and of teachers to 
inculcate right views and right principles in relation to 
questions of morals, and especially in relation to the 
judgments which shall be pronounced, not only upon the 
people of our own age, but also upon the men and women 
who lived and acted in other times and under conditions 
very unlike those in which we are living. In the teach- 
ing of history the instructor will find frequent occasions 
for calling attention to the differences between the moral 
standards of former generations and the present. The 
men who hung their neighbors that were accused of witch- 
craft, were not necessarily greater sinners than the men 
of to-day who disbelieve in witchcraft. One of the great- 
est men in the religious history of the world declared, in 
all sincerity, that he had lived in good conscience before 
God, although he had caused men and women to be put 
to death for holding a belief different from his own. His 
standard was that of the age in which he lived and of the 
people by whom he was surrounded. This was an ex- 
treme case and illustrates very strongly the point under 



144 THE THINKING ACTIVITIES 

discussion. Possibly children will be helped to restrain 
their inclination to pass severe judgments upon their fel- 
lows upon moral questions by fastening in memory the 
wise saying — '' Judge not, that ye be not judged. For 
with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged ; and 
with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you 
again." 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Comparison in all steps of thinking. 

2. Reasoning defined ; examples. 

3. Reasoning in common affairs. 

4. Explicit and implicit reasoning. 

5. Inductive reasoning ; examples. 

6. Deductive reasoning ; definition. 

7. The syllogism ; premises, major, minor. 

8. Demonstrative and probable reasoning ; examples. 

9. Proof and proving. 

10. Fallacies ; examples. 

11. With what reasoning must begin. 

12. Intuitive judgments. 

13. Some fundamental truths ; axioms. 

14. Characteristics of intuitive truths. 

15. Validity of mediate judgments ; how established. Testimony. 

16. Direct evidence ; assumptions as to it. 

17. Circumstantial evidence. 

18. Rules as to such evidence. 

19. Analogy ; examples ; Jevons. 

20. Development of the reasoning powers ; slow development ; 

mistakes, etc. 

21. Suggestions for their culture. 

22. Restraint and liberty for children. 

23. Quotation relating to present conditions. 

24. Effects of specializing; need of broad culture ; illustrations ; 

lawyer, physician. 

25. Reasoning on moral questions; need of instruction as to this. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE FEELINGS ; SENSATIONS. 

Relation of Feeling to Cognition. The activities of 
mind thus far studied are all concerned in sonne of the 
knowing processes, and when grouped together are called 
the intellect. Associated with the psychical processes of 
perceiving, conceiving, remembering, and thinking, we 
are conscious of certain peculiar states of mind. We see 
a friend in deep affliction, and have a state of conscious- 
ness which we call sympathy. We see a person, or even 
an animal, suffering pain ; we have a state of mind called 
pity. We see some one exposed to danger, and we ex- 
perience a state which we call anxiety. We see or hear 
of some great act of injustice, or of the perpetration of a 
monstrous crime, and are filled with indignation. We 
think ourselves to be greatly wronged and injured by the 
deliberate purpose of some one ; we have a state of mind 
which we name resentment, or perhaps by a stronger 
name, anger. We see, or hear, or read of noble deeds 
done for humanity, and we are filled with admiration. 

Experience proves that feeling is the correlative of 
knowing. Every mental activity combines the two. 
Feeling is the subjective side ; cognition the objective ; 
that is, feeling is a matter of consciousness alone ; cog- 
nition has reference to something external. For ex- 
ample, sensation, iri one aspect, is feeling ; perception is 
lo 145 



146 THE FEELINGS ; SENSATIONS 

cognition. That is, in perception we are conscious of 
the qualities of objects about us which affect the senses; 
sensation is the consciousness of the agreeable or dis- 
agreeable feeling which is associated with the act of 
knowing. In the exercise of the thinking activities, we 
are conscious, on the one hand, of the discovery and 
acquisition of knowledge ; on the other hand, we are 
conscious of a feeling of pleasure and enjoyment accom- 
panying this discovery. In an exercise of the imagination 
we are conscious of the intellectual operation of forming 
the ideal representation, and also of the feeling of satis- 
faction resulting from the gratification of the taste. 

Importance of a Due Proportion of each Element. 
Although cognition and feeling are coexistent and cor- 
relative, they are not necessarily proportional ; that is, 
the one is not always present in just sufficient quantity 
and intensity to exactly balance the other, and thus 
produce an efficient and harmonious psychical activity. 
When each is present in proper proportion mental action 
IS vigorous, productive, and agreeable. The cognition 
excites the emotion ; the emotion quickens the activity 
of thought. The influence, under these conditions, is 
reciprocal, desirable, and healthful. The current of 
thought and the current of feeling flow along in the same 
direction and in the same channel. The two currents 
mingle together in beautiful accord, and acquisition 
becomes rapid and pleasurable. Study, to the student, 
under these conditions, is so far from being irksome that 
it is a positive delight. The practical problem for both 
student and teacher is to learn how to bring about this 
happy commingling of the elements. 



FEELINGS DIFFER I47 

In Opposition. At times the current of thought and 
the current of feeling seem to take opposite directions. 
If they have any relation, it is one of antagonism and 
opposition. The source of the emotion is foreign to the 
matter of study. Thinking, under such circumstances, is 
Hke rowing upstream against a strong downward current. 
Progress is difficult, painful, slow, and sometimes quite 
impossible. At times thought, upon some subjects, 
becomes so absorbing that a condition of abstraction 
comes on ; or emotion becomes so intense as to over- 
whelm judgment and reason, and the soul is stirred as by 
a tempest. In this case thought excludes feeling, or 
feeling destroys temporarily thepower of thought. This 
state of affairs is altogether unnatural and harmful, and 
should be avoided as far as possible. 

Feelings differ, first of all, in quality. A general 
division of the feelings has been made into the pleasurable 
and the painful. The first of these divisions has an 
agreeable quality ; the pleasurable feelings contribute to 
our enjoyment and satisfaction. The painful feelings 
have a disagreeable quality ; they produce dissatisfaction, 
discontent, and are harmful, when long continued, to the 
tone of the mind and to the physical organism. Some 
physiologists affirm that '^ pain is always the result of a 
change in the nerve cells of the brain." This is possible, 
but not susceptible of absolute proof. It makes pain an 
effect, and not a cause. 

This very general division of feelings into those which 
have the quality of pleasure and those which have the 
quality of pain, has very little practical value. The same 
feeling sometimes gives pleasure, and at other times 



148 THE FEELINGS ; SENSATIONS 

pain ; it affords pleasure to some persons, and apparently 
gives pain to others. Feelings often become so mingled 
together that it is not easy to determine whether pleasure 
or pain predominates. 

Change from Pleasure to Pain, etc. ; Activity. Certain 
laws or principles are observable in the production of 
feelings of pleasure and those of pain. One of the most 
obvious of these is the law of exercise or activity. Ap- 
propriate exercise, either physical or mental, produces a 
pleasurable feeling. This is especially the case with 
children, and with young animals. In the healthy child 
there is an accumulation of nervous force in the nerve 
centers. The '^working off " of this surplus energy in 
sports and games causes a feeling of exhilaration, and 
produces much positive enjoyment. If the activity con- 
tinues too long, or is too violent, it ends in exhaustion 
and fatigue, and a painful feeling follows. The law of 
** pleasurable activity " is in substance this: ''Activity 
produces pleasure when the energy to be expended is 
greater than the resistance to be overcome." As soon 
as the resistance equals or exceeds the surplus energy the 
pleasure ceases and pain begins. Consequently moderate 
exercise, or exercise within proper limits, is a natural 
source of enjoyable feeling. This is true of the activity 
of all the senses. Sight and hearing give pleasurable 
feeling, often in a high degree, when the excitation of 
these senses is produced by a moderate amount of light 
and sound ; but when the light is intensely brilliant or 
the sound is very loud or extremely piercing, the pleasure 
speedily gives place to pain. 

Repression. The repression of accumulated energy is 



OBSTRUCTIONS I49 

as productive of pain, in various degrees, as the over- 
working of this energy. An -active child is restless and 
uneasy when forced to remain quiet for any considerable 
time. Muscular action is absolutely necessary to his 
comfort. He prefers the pain of positive fatigue to the 
discomfort of ''sitting still.'* Few things are more in- 
human than requiring a young child to remain quiet or 
in the same position for any length of time. The mental 
activities seem subject to the same law as the physical. 
Ennui, resulting from mental idleness, produces mental 
discomfort as real and positive as any physical discomfort. 
Psychical activity, either too long continued or too in- 
tense, results in the pain of mental fatigue. 

Obstructions. Obstructed activity, even when the ac- 
tivity is not excessive or protracted, produces a peculiar 
feeling of pain. We do not like to be baffled in our 
efforts, either physical or psychical. It pains one to be 
compelled to acknowledge, even to himself, that he is 
unable to accomplish something which he has attempted 
or desires. The boy whose strength is unequal to the 
effort of lifting a weight which his companion has lifted, 
is afflicted with the painful feeling of defeat. The 
student who has failed to solve a mathematical problem 
experiences the pain which follows thwarted efforts. The 
politician who has missed an election to some coveted of- 
fice, experiences a similar, but, probably, a deeper feeling 
of chagrin. The joy of success is the correlative of the 
pain of failure in every department of activity. The 
conclusion seems to be that the exercise of a proper 
amount of unimpeded activity yields a pleasurable feel- 
ing, varying in degree according to conditions, and ac- 



150 THE FEELINGS; SENSATIONS 

cording to the temperament of the individual. When 
the activity is too intense, or too protracted, or is seri- 
ously hindered, the result is a painful feeling, varying in 
degree according to circumstances and the temperament 
of the person. 

Change. Another important principle in the produc- 
tion of feelings of pleasure and pain is the law of change ; 
the change may be either in the degree or in the form of 
the activity. This change sometimes approaches to ab- 
solute contrast. Examples are abundant. One walking 
over level ground and with a regular measured step, will 
experience relief and find more enjoyment by going now 
a little faster and now a little slower, and by having oc- 
casionally some moderate ups and downs in the pathway. 
Long-continued movement, with no variations in degree 
or kind, becomes irksome. The same impression, re- 
peated over and over again, loses its power to affect us ; 
we become nearly or quite unconscious of its influence. 
When so-called pleasuresassume the character of a '^con- 
tinuous round," they cease to be pleasures unless the 
variety is sufficient to offset the continuity. In common 
affairs, we enjoy plenty only after we have experienced 
want. We enjoy health only after suffering from sick- 
ness. The enjoyment of good news comes, to a consider- 
able extent, from contrast with bad news. Hobbes is 
quoted as saying, '* Sense, properly so called, must neces- 
sarily have in it perpetual variety of phantasms, that 
they may be discerned from one another ; it being almost 
all one for a man to be always sensible of one and the 
same thing, and not to be sensible of anything." 

Novelty. Change involves, or should involve, novelty. 



EFFECTS OF HABIT 151 

We desire not simply a variation in degree ; we wish for 
a change in kind, and not merely a change from one fa- 
miliar kind to another equally familiar, but to something 
new. The child desires a new plaything ; the boy longs 
for new kinds of sport; early manhood asks for new 
forms of activity. New scenes, new modes of life, new ex- 
periments, new inventions, new methods of doing old 
things, — these are all sought after ; their novelty affords 
pleasure. 

Effects of Habit. Human nature is full of apparent 
contradictions. These, however, are mainly on the sur- 
face ; a deeper examination reveals the fact that there is 
essential harmony in spite of the apparent contradiction. 
We long for change ; we are delighted with novelty ; we 
seek the new and the strange ; a too long continuance of 
even the agreeable and delightful produces an insensibil- 
ity to their charms. At the same time we cling to the 
common and familiar ; we are not quite at ease when we 
break entirely away from that to which we have been 
long accustomed. This disposition to hold fast to the 
customary is not equally strong in all men, nor is it 
equally strong at all periods of life. But it is general 
enough to be regarded as a native characteristic of the 
mind. The fondness for the old and the love of the new 
are not, after all, hostile affections ; when rightly under- 
stood and interpreted they come into harmony. The 
force of habit which attaches us so strongly to the famil- 
iar, never ceases to make its power felt ; we cannot 
escape its grasp if we would. But this does not forbid 
our loving the new, when the new bears a natural rela- 
tion to the old. The new must not insist in breaking the 



152 THE FEELINGS; SENSATIONS 

continuity of life ; it must consent to unite itself with 
that which has already become habitual. In this way 
the old life continues and is constantly enriched by ab- 
sorbing and assimilating new elements. It is only by 
this process that life broadens and deepens and con- 
stantly increases in quality and intensity. The pleas- 
urable feelings having their origin in the familiar, blend 
with the equally pleasurable feelings springing from the 
new. 

Knowledge of the Feelings Important. For several 
reasons a knowledge of the feelings is of great impor- 
tance, especially to the parent and the teacher. In the 
first place, their close connection with cognition, which 
has already been considered, renders them of the highest 
value as aids and incentives to study. The feeling which 
is called interest, wisely excited by proper means, trans- 
forms the work of the student from a task into a positive 
delight. 

The Motive Powers. In the second place the feelings 
are the motive powers of the soul ; we act, not simply 
because we know, but because, connected with this know- 
ing, is the impulsive force of some emotion. Mingled 
with, or immediately following, the cognition, the emo- 
tion excites desire and influences the will. It intervenes 
between the knowledge and the volition. The easy con- 
trol of children depends very largely upon the power one 
has of exciting the right emotion at the right time, and 
of giving the impelling force of the feeling the desired 
direction. It is important, also, to know how to allay 
and to remove emotions, and to change one feeling for 
another. Feelings are allayed or transformed, not di- 



RELATION TO MORALS 1 53 

rectly, but by skillful indirection. Only one strong 
emotion can find place in the soul at a time ; one is 
driven out by the introduction of another. Enkindle a 
vivid emotion of good will, and the demon of ill will flees 
at once. The mind cannot remain empty ; and if it is full 
of the good, the evil finds no roorn. 

Enjoyment. Furthermore, the pleasures and enjoy- 
ments of life, and its pains and sorrows, are chiefly found 
in the realm of feeling. While enjoyment is not to be 
sought' for its own sake, it is lawful and even praiseworthy 
so to live and so to perform the duties belonging to us, 
that enjoyment shall come spontaneously and dwell in 
the soul. 

Consciousness of right purpose and intentions, of kindly 
feeling towards all with whom we have to do, of a desire 
that the little world in which we have our being shall be 
a happier and more cheerful world because we are living 
and acting in it, — this is sure to bring genuine pleasure, 
and a feeling of profound satisfaction. 

Relation to Morals. Still another reason for seeking 
to understand the nature and character of the feelings is 
their intimate connection with the moral nature, with 
questions of right and wrong, with practical ethics. The 
motives to action are feelings of one kind or another. A 
predominant mode of feeling determines character. What 
we really are is the sum of our emotions, desires, and 
purposes. Any cherished feeling gives color and tone to 
living. To a large extent the character of an act is deter- 
mined by the emotions which prompted it. Neither 
children nor men in active life can be justly and wisely 
dealt with without some knowledge of the hidden springs 



154 THE FEELINGS; SENSATIONS 

from which behavior originates, and which gives volume 
and quality to the current of daily living. 

As to Classification. A satisfactory classification 
of the feelings is a matter of much difficulty, for several 
reasons. The feelings are very numerous, and many of 
them very complex in character. Several classifications 
have about equal value. Almost every writer adopts a 
classification of his own, growing out of his peculiar views, 
or adapted to the end for which he writes. Hamilton 
makes first the common division into pleasures and pains. 
He then separates them into sensations and sentiments, 
subdividing the latter into contemplative and practical, 
placing desires under the practical. One author divides 
feelings into immediate, prospective, retrospective. Mr. 
Spencer has classifications peculiar to himself, and too 
philosophical for practical use. 

The Classification adopted. Following generally a 
few other writers we adopt the following classification : 

(i) Sense-Feelings or Physical Feelings: with proper 
explanations, these may be called sensations. 

(2) Emotions : these are mental feelings or states 
which spring up in consciousness spontaneously under 
appropriate conditions. 

(3) Sentiments : these are mental feelings or states 
having their origin in r(^/^*(?;^^/ considerations. 

The desires, while closely related to the feelings, have 
some peculiarities which make it, on the whole, best to 
put them into a special class or division. Their connec- 
tion with the will renders them of peculiar interest. 

Sense-Feelings or Sensations have their origin in the 
physical organism, either in the internal condition of the 



SENSE-FEELINGS OR SENSATIONS 1 55 

organism itself, or in the condition produced temporarily 
by the action of something external to the organism. 
The immediate product of these agencies is sensation. 
Sensations have two aspects; one aspect looks inward, 
is subjective, is feeling. The other aspect looks outward, 
is objective, results in perception. These two aspects are 
correlative ; but they do not often exist in the same 
degree ; one or the other predominates. In one case 
there is an excess of feeling ; in the other cognition is the 
main element. Let us study briefly the two aspects in 
the activities of the various senses. 

(A) Sensations of Taste. In taste the element of 
feeling is very marked. We have the agreeable tastes of 
sweetness, of acidity in a moderate degree. Various 
kinds of drinks and foods afford a pleasurable taste. On 
the other hand the disagreeable or painful feelings con- 
nected with tastes are abundant. We have the bitter, 
the excessively acid, the strongly saline, and the fiery, as 
in mustard, pepper, and some alcoholic liquors. 

(B) Sensations of Smell. The sense of smell is prob- 
ably more strongly subjective than any of the others ; 
and affords a very great variety of feelings both of pleas- 
ure and of pain. The varieties of odors are nearly without 
limit. We have the sweet and fragrant odors of flowers, 
the enticing odors of some foods and of many fruits, and 
the exhilarating odors of the garden, the field, and of the 
pine forest. The opposites of all these are found, and 
their odors give feelings more or less disagreeable and 
painful. 

(C) Sensations of Hearing. The sensations of hearing 
and sight are more objective than subjective ; but the 



156 THE FEELINGS; SENSATIONS 

ear gives moreAof feeling than the eye. There are feel- 
ings of pleasure or pain produced by differences in vol- 
ume, differences in pitch, and differences in quality. The 
harmony of sounds produced by the human voice, and by 
musical instruments, gives peculiar pleasure. Noises and 
discords, especially if harsh and grating, excite most 
painful feelings. 

(D) Sensations of Sight. The sensation of light, 
when not too excessive or intense, is decidedly pleas- 
urable. Its influence is similar to that of a fitting degree 
of warmth, or of quiet rest after fatiguing exertion, or of 
a gentle breeze at evening when the day has been too 
warm for cpmfort. The effect of a well-lighted room 
upon the spirits and upon the physical organism is very 
marked. This is proved in hospitals and other places 
occupied by the sick. In case of mental diseases the sun- 
shine, in a moderate degree of intensity, exerts a curative 
power. The sensation produced by a glaring and ex- 
ceedingly intense light is painful. The sensations of 
some colors are agreeable and pleasing, of others dis- 
agreeable and painful. The sensations of green are 
generally regarded as agreeable and healthful, of blue a 
little less agreeable than green. Sensations of red are 
exciting and pleasurable for a time, but become painful 
if too long continued. The neutral colors generally af- 
ford a mild degree of pleasure. There are harmonies of 
color as well as of sounds, and discords also Avhich give 
pain to a cultivated taste. The feelings of beauty and 
sublimity, to which both hearing and sight contribute, are 
not sensuous in their nature, to any considerable extent, 
and belong among the sentiments. 



SENSE-FEELINGS OR SENSATIONS 15/ 

(E) Sensations of Touch. The sensntions of touch, 
employing the term in its widest signification, are of the 
most various kinds. A moderate degree of warmth is 
pleasurable; increased beyond a certain point, it becomes 
painful. Muscular exertion gives enjoyment when the 
effort is in proper proportion to the nervous energy ; contin- 
ued until fatigue comes on, it gives pain. The sensation 
of soft clothing is usually pleasing; the sensation pro- 
duced by stroking with the hand, or rubbing with some 
soft substance, is soothing and refreshing and conse- 
quently pleasing. A sharp stroke of the hand, of a stick, 
or of a whip, gives acute pain. The effects of other sen- 
sations of touch can be readily tested by the student 
or the teacher. 

(F) Organic Sensations. The normal action of the 
organs of digestion, circulation, and assimilation, is at- 
tended with a mild degree of pleasure. In the young 
child, and in the young of some of the domestic animals, 
the degree of pleasure seems to be pretty high. This is 
indicated by the disposition of the child to engage in 
sports and games in which bodily exercise predominates, 
and by the frolicsomeness of young animals ; evidently 
there is much pleasure in *' working off '' accumulated 
nervous energy ; and when the fatigue point is reached 
there is a sort of negative pleasure in resting. 

Whenever the functions of any part of the physical 
organism are disturbed, or badly performed, the sensation 
of pain follows. Probably we give in mature life more 
attention to the painful organic sensations than to the 
pleasurable ones. In themselves the organic sensations 
are not of great importance, except as they indicate the 



158 THE FEELINGS; SENSATIONS 

condition of the bodv. But the connection between the 
body and the mind, between the physical and the psy- 
chical, is so intimate that the condition of the one seriously 
affects the other. The behavior of a child is often deter- 
mined by the state of his body ; he may be fretful, ill- 
natured, and bad-tempered in his conduct because he is 
distressed by indigestion, or tortured by improper cloth- 
ing, or is suffering pain from being forced to remain in 
an uncomfortable position. On the other hand, if his 
food and drink are of the right kind, if his clothing 
is comfortable, if he is permitted to change his position 
and move about freely according to his own wishes, he is 
usually cheerful, contented, happy himself, and inclined 
to make others so. Careful attention should be given by 
parents and teachers to the influence of the physical or- 
ganism upon the emotional nature of the child and upon 
his temper and disposition. 

The Appetites. Appetites are either natural or ac- 
quired by force of habitual indulgence. Natural appe- 
tites are cravings caused by some want in the physical 
organism. They- may be called physical desires. In a 
state of health the cravings recur with a good degree of 
regularity, the frequency depending, to a considerable 
extent, upon habit. The feeling is allayed when the 
want has been supplied. The desire for food is regarded 
as the typical appetite ; this is occasioned by a condition 
of the digestive organs. The craving causes a peculiarly 
uncomfortable sensation ; when very intense it produces 
positive pain. Thirst, the longing for drink, is another 
typical appetite. Several other conditions of body are 
reckoned as appetites by some writers, while others do 



APPETITES 159 

not consider them such. Among these are the craving 
for fresh air for breathing ; the longing for sleep when 
drowsiness comes over us ; the desire for rest when weary ; 
and many others of similar nature. These are all natural 
cravings and have reference to the well-being of life, and 
to the pleasure of Hving. The gratification of the natural 
appetites, within proper limits, is clearly a demand of 
nature, and such gratification involves no question of pro- 
priety or morals. 

Artificial Appetites. As previously stated, these ap- 
petites are created by the habit of self-indulgence. They 
are usually morbid in their character, indicating a diseased 
condition of some parts of the physical organism. The 
tendency to the formation of such habits is sometimes 
inherited, but not the appetite itself. Among the most 
common of these acquired and morbid appetites are the 
cravings for liquors, for tobacco, and for opium in some 
of its numerous forms. 

Acquired appetites differ from natural ones in several 
particulars. They are more intense and exacting in their 
demands, they cause more irritation and discomfort ; and 
their occurrence is more frequent and less regular. Tliey 
are never fully satisfied ; the craving becomes constant, 
and the more they receive the more they demand. They 
usually grow stronger as age advances, whereas the 
natural appetites become weaker and less imperative in 
their cravings. 

The creation and gratification of such morbid appetites 
involve moral considerations. No m.an has a moral right 
to debase and destroy his native powers of either body 
or mind, or to waste upon filthy and disgusting habits 



l6o THE FEELINGS ; SENSATIONS 

the means needed for higher and nobler purposes. The 
natural relationship between the physical appetites and 
the intellectual desires will be noticed when the desires 
are under discussion. 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Relation of feeling- to cognition ; examples. 

2. Experience proves a combination to exist. 

3. Importance of a due proportion of each element. 

4. The two acting together ; in opposition. 

5. How feelings differ ; pleasure, pain. 

6. Change from pleasure to pain. 

7. Law of activity ; ** pleasurable activity." 

8. Effect of repression ; obstruction; examples. 

9. Effect of change ; contrast; novelty. 

10. Effect of habit. 

11. Relation of the old and the new. 

12. Importance of a knowledge of the feelings ; the motive powers. 

13. Sources of enjoyment. 

14. Relation to morals. 

15. As to classification ; difficulties. 

16. The classification adopted : (i) Sense-feelings or sensations ; 

(2) Emotions ; (3) Sentiments. 

17. Desires by themselves. 

18. Discussion of the sensations; sensations of taste ; of smell ; 

of hearing ; of sight ; of touch. 

19. Organic sensations ; influence upon a child. 

20. The appetites ; natural, examples ; artificial, how produced. 

21. How the artificial differ from the natural. 

22. Moral considerations. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE EMOTIONS. 

What the Emotions are. Emotions are feelings which 
spring up in the soul spontaneously when certain appro- 
priate conditions are presented. They differ from the 
sensations previously considered in that they are not 
merely sensuous ; they differ from the sentiments in that 
they are not rational ; that is, they do not result from a 
process of reasoning, or from any action of the judgment. 
They are not irrational ; that is, they are not, when mod- 
erate, opposed to reason, but are simply non-rational. 
Emotions greatly intensified become passions, of which 
violent anger is an example. In this they are irrational, 
urging one on to conduct of the most unreasonable char- 
acter, regardless of consequences. 

We see a person suffering extreme pain, and the emo- 
tion of pity springs up ; we see some act of injustice or 
cruelty perpetrated, and the feeling of indignation is felt ; 
insulting words are addressed to us, and the feeling of re- 
sentment or anger immediately appears. These are all 
illustrations of emotion. 

The Animals. The lower animals evidently experi- 
ence many of the emotions, but it is doubtful if they are 
capable of experiencing the sentiments, unless it be the 

sentiment of gratitude and possibly one or two others, 
n i6i 



l62 THE EMOTIONS 

Differences in Susceptibility to Emotions. It is a 

matter of common observation that some persons are 
much more susceptible to emotions than others. Some- 
thing of this difference may be set down to the credit of 
the habit of self-control acquired by continued effort, but 
undoubtedly much depends upon the original constitu- 
tion of the individual. Certain differences are found in 
the physical and mental make-up of men, which render 
some much less susceptible than others. 

The Temperament. Among these differences one of 
the most influential is that of temperament. The term 
temperament is employed to indicate certain character- 
istics of the physical organism which produce or are ac- 
companied by certain mental characteristics. The phys- 
ical and the psychical appear to act and to react upon 
each other. 

The theory of temperaments is a very old one, and 
four temperaments have been generally recognized, the 
names used to designate these varying somewhat. They 
are most commonly named the sanguine, the melancholic, 
the choleric, and the phlegmatic. The mental traits cor- 
responding to these are the hopeful, despondent, iras- 
cible, and inactive or insensitive. Four periods of life are 
sometimes said to correspond to the four temperaments: 
'^childhood is sanguine, youth melancholic (sentimental), 
manhood choleric, age phlegmatic." Certain physical 
characteristics mark each temperament, when the tem- 
peraments are so obvious as to be typical. Persons of 
choleric and sanguine temperaments are much more sus- 
ceptible to emotions than those of phlegmatic, or even of 
sentimental, temperaments, though the sentimental are 



EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS 163 

somewhat peculiarly susceptible to certain kinds of emo- 
tions. 

Moods and Dispositions. Moods are mental peculiar- 
ities usually of a temporary nature, produced, in most 
cases, by some condition of the body. Moods are called 
cheerful and sad, lively and serious, frank and reserved, 
good-natured and irascible, and by many other names. 
Generally the mood manifests itself in appearance of the 
body, the tones of the voice, the features, and the move- 
ments. It is evident that the susceptibility of an in- 
dividual, at any particular time, will be largely influenced 
by the dominant mood. 

Disposition is a psychical characteristic, native gener- 
ally in its origin, but frequently created and made per- 
manent by habit. The same terms which describe moods 
may be employed to describe dispositions. 

Disposition determines to a considerable degree the 
sort of emotion to which a person will be peculiarly sus- 
ceptible. An individual of gloomy and morose disposi- 
tion will not be stirred by cheerful and lively emotions ; 
one of a cheerful and pleasant disposition will not exhibit 
emotions of a sad and melancholy nature. In the study 
of individuals, and in pronouncing judgment upon them, 
temperaments, moods, and dispositions must be taken 
into account. 

Expression of Emotions. The effect of some partic- 
ular emotions upon the body will be referred to in con- 
nection with the description of these emotions. The 
effects of the emotions in general will be only briefly 
touched upon at this point. Mr. Darwin, in his work 
upon *^ The Expression of the Emotions in Man and 



164 THE EMOTIONS 

Animals," writes : '* In all the exhilarating emotions, the 
eyebrows, the eyelids, the nostrils, and the angles of the 
mouth are raised. In the depressing passions it is the 
reverse." This general statement can be verified by a 
careful observer. 

Grief and ill humor always draw down the corners of 
the mouth ; on the other hand, joy and good nature draw 
the corners upward. Contempt and strong aversion are 
indicated by raising the upper lip and the nostrils. 

Dr. Davis, in his ^^ Elements of Psychology," says: 
**The effects of feeling in physiognomic expression are 
largely through the facial nerve. Different fibers of its 
motor branches determine different movements of the 
face in response to specific feelings. The lifted or frown- 
ing brow, as in supercilious pride, or in anger, pain, doubt, 
or embarrassment, is very expressive, and easily read. 
The common elevation of the lip and nose gives expres- 
sion to disdain or disgust. There are nine muscles mov- 
ing the mouth, making it the most expressive feature, far 
more so than the eye. The power of expression is seen 
in smiles, pouting, the curled lip of scorn, the depressed 
corners in sadness, the open mouth in wonder, and many 
others. The tones of the voice correspond. Next to the 
facial, the respiratory nerves are most susceptible, as in 
sighing, breathless surprise, and panting eagerness. The 
organic effects of feelings are those produced on the 
glands, lungs, heart, stomach, kidneys, and viscera gen- 
erally, and on the skin. Effusion from the lachrymal 
gland is an accompaniment of grief, but there are also 
tears of merriment, of joy, and of anger. Cheerfulness 
promotes digestion, while all depressing feelings tend to 



REFLEX INFLUENCE OF CONDUCT 165 

arrest the healthy action of the stomach, liver, bowels, 
and kidneys. In fear, the mouth is parched by a sup- 
pression of saliva, and a cold sweat breaks out on the 
skin. The disturbed action of the heart under emotion 
is a remarkable instance of the influence of feeling on the 
movements of an organ supplied by nerves of the sym- 
pathetic system. This influence is so great that the heart 
is popularly spoken of as the special seat of feeling, as 
the brain is of intelligence/' 

Reflex Influence of Conduct. Experience and observa- 
tion prove this to be a psychological law : Conduct^ that is^ 
movements of the body, react upon the mind, and tend to 
produce the mental states and feelings of which the behavior 
is the natural index and outward expression. This lazv 
is as true of language as of action. Every feeling has 
its own peculiar and legitimate mode of expression in 
tones of voice, words, gestures, and positions, and if free- 
dom of expression is refused the feeling soon begins to 
subside. The mastery of passion is attained by reso- 
lutely stifling its expression. Like fire securely covered, 
it dies. The old adage to ^' count two before speaking if 
you are angry, and a hundred if very angry *' is based 
upon a fundamental principle of psychology. 

On the other hand, one can become angry by talking 
and acting like an angry man ; the feelings of kindness, 
courtesy, politeness, and good-Avill spring up in the soul 
when the speech and conduct indicate these feelings. 
In the management of childrejt, it is of the highest impor- 
tance to check and prevent the external expression of the 
evil passions, aiid to require the conduct and language to 
be the natural expression of the best feelings of the soul. 



l66 THE EMOTIONS 

By tills ineaits the developtnent of tlie bad is, to a large 
degree, prevented, and the development of the good encour- 
aged and promoted. The dispositions and tendencies of 
mind, which constitute character, are thus fashioned by 
modes of action which have their origin in compulsion, 
and are continued, to a considerable extent, by the force 
of habit. Not only does the inner man form the outer 
one, but the outer man reacts to fashion the inner one. 

Professor James well says : ^^ Sit all day in a moping 
posture, sigh and reply to everything with a dismal 
voice, and your melancholy lingers. There is no more 
valuable precept in moral education than this, as all who 
have experience know; if we wish to conquer undesirable 
emotional tendencies in ourselves, we must assiduously 
and, in the first instance, cold-bloodedly, go through the 
outward movements of those contrary dispositions which 
we prefer to cultivate. The reward of persistency will 
infallibly come, in the fading out of the sullenness or 
depression, and the advent of real cheerfulness and kind- 
ness in their stead.'' 

Subdivisions of the Emotions. It is very difficult to 
make satisfactory subdivisons of the emotions. They 
may be grouped in several different ways, and one way 
will prove about as good as another. They may be sep- 
arated into two great divisions: (i) the egoistic and 
personal, and (2) the altruistic and social. 

The Egoistic and Personal Emotions are feelings 
of which self is the center. The soul is excited and 
aroused into a state of greater or less pleasure or pain ; 
but self alone is concerned in the feelings. The feelings 
of childhood are largely of this nature. Emotions of this 



EGOISTIC AND ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS 167 

sort are sure to spring up spontaneously ; they are intui- 
tive and need little cultivation, excepting repression and 
softening in the interest of good-fellowship. 

Within proper limits the egoistic feelings are neces- 
sary and useful. In society, as it is, and as it has been 
in past ages, there is need of care for one's own interests. 
The important consideration is that care for self shall 
not lead to a disregard for the well-being of others. Self- 
love, so called, is allowable, and may even be worthy of 
commendation, when it does not go beyond a proper 
regard for one's reputation, happiness, and prosperity in 
business and other matters. 

Among the offensive and unfortunate personal emo- 
tions are inordinate self-esteem, pride, envy, jealousy, 
and malice. Love of approbation, of society for one's 
own pleasure, and of superiority, are personal feelings 
which sometimes become very disagreeable to others. 
Fear is egoistic, but is so instinctive that it cannot be 
sharply condemned, if not excessive and unreasonable. 

The Altruistic and Social Emotions. The altruistic 
feelings are those which go out towards others with the 
desire and purpose to do them good. Those feelings 
which are named the beneficent affections are altruistic in 
their nature. Many of these are instinctive, such as 
parental love ; others have their origin in the relations 
which men sustain to one another, such as friendship. 
Sympathy is more than an emotion, but it is highly al- 
truistic, and yet contributes in a large degree to the en- 
joyment of the sympathizer. This division into egoistic 
and altruistic emotions has no necessary connection with 
the groupings which follow. 



l68 THE EMOTIONS 

Some Groups of Emotions. It will not be possible 
to consider the emotions in the order of their develop- 
ment, but it will be natural to notice first some which 
manifest themselves very early in the child*s life ; beyond 
these the treatment will have no reference to the period 
of their appearance. 

Simple Emotions. The earliest mental feelings are so 
closely related, in their origin, to the physical feelings 
that the two can hardly be separated. Some of these 
simple emotions are joyousness, sadness, irritability, fret- 
fulness, and many others both of a pleasurable and of a 
painful nature. 

The babe in arms exhibits a mild form of pleasure when 
Its natural desire for food is gratified, and it shows plainly 
that it enjoys an agreeable temperature, soft clothing, and 
proper care. It answers back the smile and caressing 
tones of the mother by at least the semblance of a smile. 
A little later the child manifests a buoyancy of spirits, an 
overflow of pleasurable emotion, when the functions of 
the bodily organs are properly performed and everything 
about him seems to contribute to his comfort. The kit- 
ten and the young lamb give evidence, by their sportive 
actions, of similar feelings. The physical and the psy- 
chical in the child are here so mingled that it is not easy to 
separate them by any acuteness of analysis ; nevertheless 
the simplest emotions must have their beginning at this 
point. 

Both the young animal and the child are subject to 
feelings directly opposite to these joyous ones. They 
exhibit the instinctive emotion of sadness and depression. 
This is of the same mingled character as the others. 



EMOTIONS OF JOY AND SORROW 169 

Among the early emotions are those of fretfulness, irrita- 
bility, petulance, and ill-temper. These feelings are not 
indications of a permanent disposition of mind, of charac- 
ter in the usual sense of the word ; they are rather the 
answer of the soul to the uncomfortable condition of the 
physical organism. Children will not be justly treated 
unless this fact is taken into account. They should not 
be harshly dealt with for this purely instinctive behavior. 
At the same time it is of great importance to check, in 
all suitable ways, and at as early a period as the develop- 
ment of the child will permit, manifestations of ill-humor 
and irritability, and to insist upon self-control. Other- 
wise the law of habit will create a permanent tendency 
to such disagreeable manifestations when there is no 
adequate cause for them. These early emotions are, with 
very slight exceptions, egoistic ; the altruistic appear 
with more development and culture. 

Emotions of Gladness and Joy and their opposites. 
Sadness and Sorrow. The feelings of gladness and sad- 
ness in the mature mind are the developed and ripened 
emotions of the child. They have passed through various 
successive stages, becoming less and less dependent upon 
physical conditions and more and more purely psychical 
in character. Different degrees of essentially the same 
feeling receive different names. The steps of increase in 
intensity cannot be accurately indicated, but this arrange- 
ment has been suggested ; gladness, joy, bliss, rapture, 
ecstasy. Each of these emotions has different degrees 
which can be experienced in consciousness, but not 
described in words. Simple gladness is the lowest de- 
gree of the pleasurable group of emotions ; rapture and 



I/O . THE EMOTIONS 

ecstacy afford the highest degrees. Bliss is more re- 
strained in its expression than rapture, less intense, and 
consequently more enduring. Joy usually quickens the 
action of the heart, gives the eyes a sparkling appearance, 
sometimes filling them with tears, and spreads over the 
whole countenance an animated and smiling expression. 
When excessive and unrestrained, it causes lively gesticu- 
lation, with shouting and other manifestations which oc- 
casionally border on the absurd and ridiculous. 

Of the opposite emotions, simple sadness indicates the 
lowest degree, and positive woe the highest. Between 
these extremes there are very many varying degrees. 
Grief produces ^^ violent agitation of the whole frame, 
convulsive movements of the features," and in some cases 
sighs, sobs, and pitiable lamentations. It weakens the 
muscular action, and enfeebles the activity of the whole 
physical organism. Woe deepens all these modes of ex- 
pression, but sometimes produces such a state of depres- 
sion that all activity ceases and the bodily organs refuse 
longer to perform their functions. This, however, is 
more properly the condition of despair. 

Emotions of Good Will, of Love. This group of emo- 
tions is often named the "beneficent affections.'* They 
are feelings of good will, of affection, of kindness, which 
go out towards others, and, in some degree, towards ani- 
mals. Among these feelings are the domestic affections, 
instinctive in their origin, but approaching to the nature 
of sentiments in their higher manifestations. We have 
parental love, filial love, fraternal love, and love for 
remote kindred. The love of a parent for a child, 
while instinctive, is, or should be, subject to judgment 



EMOTIONS OF GOOD WILL, OF LOVE 171 

and reason in its modes of manifestation. It bears, in 
its lowest degree, a close resemblance to the feelings 
exhibited by many animals for their young ; it dif- 
fers in some important features. The affection of 
animals for their young is usually only temporary. It 
continues, so far as one can see, only so long as the 
young have need of special care and protection. In 
many cases the animal mother abandons her young 
before such need ceases. The fondness occasionally 
manifested by animals for grown-up offspring, and which 
the latter seem to reciprocate, appears not to differ in 
its character from that manifested at times by animals 
of the same species which have no relationship to each 
other. It is unnecessary to say that the affection of the 
human mother has no such limitations. Generallv her 
love increases in depth and strength with the passage of 
years. 

Filial love must be the earliest affection of which a 
child is conscious. This feeling is usually regarded as 
instinctive. It is, however, mainly rational, and thus re- 
sembles a sentiment. It appears to spring up, at first, in 
consequence of care and kindness received from the 
mother, and grows stronger as the relation between 
parent and child becomes better understood. In the 
majority of children of school age, filial love is suffi- 
ciently developed to be one of the most active and effi- 
cient motives in the production of good conduct and in- 
dustry in study. The proper cultivation of this emotion 
is essential to the formation of right character and good 
habits. Only in the most extreme cases should the con- 
fidence of a child in the wisdom and goodness of his 



172 THE EMOTIONS 

parents be weakened, or his regard for their commands 
and wishes be treated as of little consequence. 

Fraternal love is mainly of rational origin, springing 
up in consequence of daily intercourse, of giving and re- 
ceiving favors and kindnesses, and from a knowledge of 
common relationships, interests, obligations, and duties. 
It beautifies family life, and is a source of mutual enjoy- 
ment and protection. There is no satisfactory evidence 
of the existence of this affection in animals. The herd- 
ing and flocking together result from an instinct of a 
different nature. Undoubtedly individual cases of strong 
mutual affection between animals are found, but these 
do not appear to spring from blood relationship. 

The altruistic social affections belong in this group, so 
far as they are emotions ; but most of these partake of 
the nature of sentiments. Among these are friendship, 
gratitude, and patriotism, all of which have something of 
the emotional character, although in origin they are 
largely rational. The sources of friendship are often dif- 
ficult to trace. It sometimes originates apparently from 
proximity of residence in early life. Sometimes it be- 
gins from the natural sympathy between individuals of 
similar tastes and dispositions, or between persons en- 
gaged in the same pursuits, either of study, or business, 
or pleasure. 

Not seldom it manifests itself between persons of op- 
posite dispositions, tastes, and temperaments. Friend- 
ship does much to adorn and beautify human life, and its 
healthy development should be helped in all suitable 
ways. Without this affection and the results which 
usually flow from it, the intercourse between men would 



EMOTIONS OF ILL WILL, OF HATE 1/3 

be only such as self-interest and mutual advantage might 
seem to demand. They would unite to resist attacks of 
enemies, and to overcome obstacles too formidable to be 
removed by single individuals or by the members of one 
family or of a single clan. But such unions would be 
scarcely higher and nobler in character than the herding 
together of cattle or the flocking together of sheep or 
birds. They would be much like the occasional combi- 
nations of hungry beasts of prey to secure some common 
booty, or the crowding together of weak and timid ani- 
mals for mutual protection and safety. 

Emotions of 111 Will, of Hate. The emotions under 
this head are the opposite of those just described. They 
are feelings of ill will of various degrees, beginning with 
a mild degree of prejudice and ending with malice and 
revenge, the most violent forms of hate. 

Prejudice is sometimes a passive rather than an ac- 
tive condition of mind, and exists almost unconsciously, 
without seeking expression either in speech or in action. 
Its influence in such cases is rather negative than 
positive. It shuns its object and refrains from doing 
possible good instead of seeking to do positive evil. It 
is often extremely difificult to trace this feeling to its 
source. In some instances it seems instinctive or inher- 
ited. Sometimes it springs from family or party connec- 
tions; sometimes from religious faith and sectarian 
animosity. It may even extend to places of birth and 
education, to employment and professions. The inquiry 
*' Can any good thing come out of Nazareth ?" illustrates 
the power of prejudice, perhaps mingled with a little of 
contempt, over even a good man. In its strongest form 



1/4 THE EMOTIONS 

prejudice amounts to an unfavorable pre-judgment in 
respect to a person or a case, and unfits one for the 
position of judge or juror. It is a very subtle feeling, 
often existing and working unobserved and unsuspected. 
For this reason there is the more need to guard against 
its influence, both in one's self and in others. 

Anger bears a close resemblance, when in a mild form, 
to resentment, but it has no reference to personal pro- 
tection or safety. Its natural tendency is to pass at once 
beyond proper control, and to become a violent and dan- 
gerous passion. It is one of the emotions which produce 
most marked effects upon the physical organism. '' Under 
moderate anger the action of the heart is a little increased, 
the color is heightened, and the eyes become bright. 
The respiration is likewise a little hurried, the mouth is 
commonly compressed, and there is almost always a 
frown on the brow.** When the feeling becomes rage, 
'' the countenance reddens, the eyes flash indignant fire, 
and the aspect speaks horror ; muscular strength is 
abundantly increased, and powers of exertion are acquired 
unknown to cooler moments." 

The condition borders upon that of temporary and 
violent insanity. The victim of the passion is dangerous 
to himself and to all about him. Outbreaks of anger may 
sometimes find palliations and mitigating conditions, but 
very seldom any sufficient excuse. The plea of '^ quick 
temper'* may be accepted from a child, but not from a 
man. Manhood implies self-control and self-restraint; 
childhood is forced to learn these by the teachings of 
hard experiences. In the management of children it is 
of the utmost importance to avoid vexing and irritating 



EMOTIONS OF ILL WILL, OF HATE 1/5 

them needlessly. They should be aided in acquiring the 
habit of self-control at the earliest possible time. It 
hardly needs to be said that an irritable, ill-tempered, 
easily angered person is altogether unfit to deal with 
young children either in the home or in the school. 

Envy is an emotion of ill will excited usually by the 
good fortune and prosperity of others. By their pros- 
perity and good fortune they have become superior in 
some respects, and envy prompts to efforts to reduce them 
to the common level, or even below such level. The Im- 
mediate influence of envy is manifested in modes of speech 
intended to belittle their attainments, possessions, and 
character. Sneers, innuendoes, and derogatory insinua- 
tions are freely employed. But's and if s are liberally 
used whenever they are subjects of conversation. In 
these and other kindred ways envy makes its presence 
known. When it becomes dominant in the soul, as it 
sometimes does, it is one of the basest of passions ; it 
then degrades and destroys all real nobility of character. 

Envy frequently accompanies and enters into the state 
of mind called emulation. Emulation is one of those 
feelings which are good or bad according to the definition 
given of them. If emulation is defined as the feeling 
which prompts to efforts to excel others merely for the 
sake of excelling them, regardless of the means employed 
to secure the desired end, it must be reckoned among the 
evil emotions. If, however, it is defined as the feeling 
which inspires one to strive for the highest possible degree 
of excellence by all honorable means, then it should be 
regarded as among the praiseworthy emotions. The 
term emulation is sometimes used with the meaning of 



lyS THE EMOTIONS 

imitation. When emulation is unduly stimulated, as it 
sometimes is by artificial and unwholesome means, it is 
very likely to be closely associated with envy or with the 
baser feeling of jealousy. No incentives to study, or to 
any other form of activity, which have a tendency to 
create or foster this malignant passion, should be tolerated 
in any institution for the education and training of 
children. True manhood and moral uprightness are of 
too much value to be sacrificed for the attainment of 
some temporary advantage, however great it may appear. 

Jealousy is the feeling which takes possession of the 
soul of an individual when some other person has ob- 
tained, or seems likely to obtain, some object which he 
strongly desires, and to which he thinks, or imagines, he 
has a just claim. To the feeling of envy, jealousy adds 
the idea of supposed personal injury or affront. Another 
has come in between the individual and some object of 
affection, has carried off some prize for which he has con- 
tested, has gained a position which he coveted, or has 
thwarted his plans and wishes in some direction. 

Jealousy appears at a very early period in human de- 
velopment. The young child appears jealous when some 
other child is caressed and fondled by the nurse or 
mother. Even a pet dog is offended if another dog 
receives too much attention. Jealousy is apt to manifest 
itself wherever there is strong competition of any kind. 
It arises among children in the school and among men in 
business. It finds especial room for exhibition in the 
relation between the sexes, and is often most intense and 
bitter between those who have previously been strongly 
attached to each other. When it takes full possession of 



EMOTIONS OF ILL WILL, OF HATE I// 

the soul, it becomes the most terrible of the passions, 
impelling to the perpetration of the most fearful and 
revolting cruelties and crimes. 

Malice, Hatred, Revenge. Malice is one of the most 
malignant forms of ill will. It is a feeling which finds 
delight in the misfortunes of those towards whom it is 
directed, and seeks to do them harm in all possible ways, 
and by all possible means, without reference to their 
character or deserts. 

Hatred is a deep-seated and permanent feeling of ill 
will. Anger flashes up, burns intensely, and dies out ; 
but hatred makes for itself a dwelling place in the soul. 
It has no one specific mode of manifestation, but enters 
into envy, jealousy, malice, and every other evil emotion. 

Revenge is one of those lurking passions which burrow 
in the human soul. It does its work in darkness and 
secrecy as far as possible, and takes advantage of times 
and circumstances. It waits and watches like a wild 
beast for its prey, and pounces upon its victim when 
least expected. It seeks to inflict pain and harm under 
the pretense of '' paying back *' what has been received, 
of '' giving as good as has been sent," of returning to one 
the coin which hehas paid out. It is a demoniacal passion 
when it ripens into full maturity. And is the more dan- 
gerous from the fact that it often attaches itself to the 
milder feeling of legitimate resentment and pretends to 
be what it is not. 

Just Punishment not Revenge. Just and deserved 
punishment is sometimes wrongly called revenge. The 
infliction of such punishment is not revenge, even though 
the penalty should be death. When society has reached 

12 



178 THE EMOTIONS 

a highly civiHzed condition and has become fullv and 

* <» 

regularly organized, the State, that is, the people as a 
collected body, assumes the right to make all necessary 
laws for regulating the conduct of its citizens, and also 
assumes the duty of defending and protecting their prop- 
erty, persons, and rights. It appoints officers to admin- 
ister and execute its laws. Such officers are merely the 
servants and agents of the State. 

In ordinary cases neither the jury, the judge, nor the 
executive officers are influenced by personal feelings. 
They bear no personal ill will, no hatred, no malice, no 
revenge, toward the violators of the law. The jury may 
pity while they are compelled, by '' the law and the evi- 
dence,*' to convict ; the judge may be full of compassion 
while he pronounces the severest penalty which the law 
provides ; and the sheriff may feel intensest pity while 
he commits the criminal to prison or conducts him to the 
scaffold. In all this there is no element of malice or 
revenge ; it is justice doing its legitimate work. 

Sympathy, Compassion, etc. We have a small group 
of feelings of which sympathy may be taken as the type. 
Sympathy is much more than an emotion, but for con- 
venience it is treated in connection with the emotions, as 
it has an emotional aspect. 

Sympathy is a fellow-feeling, a state of mind in which 
one enters into the feelings of another so freely that he 
literally suffers and enjoys with him. With a little 
exaggeration a writer says, "' It is a mental contagion, a 
spontaneous, unreflecting, irrational impulse, one that 
sets aside our own personality, and moves us to partake 
of the pleasure or pain, the happiness or misery of others." 



SYMPATHY, COMPASSION, ETC. 1/9 

In order to sympathize with another we must have ex- 
perienced a condition similar to that which the other is 
now experiencing. We must have known personally 
similar pleasures or similar pains, similar feelings of joy 
or sorrow. Persons living under entirely different con- 
ditions, moving in different grades of society, find it im- 
possible to enter into full sympathy with one another ; 
they can sympathize only so far as humanity is the same 
in all conditions of life. One who has always had an 
abundance of everything which could be desired, cannot 
enter into the feelings of the very poor and destitute. 
But two mothers who have each lost a beloved child, can 
sympathize even though one is very rich and the other 
very poor. In this case the sorrow is of a kind common 
to humanity everywhere. 

The aged can sympathize with the young, because they 
themselves have had the experiences of youth ; but the 
young cannot, to any great extent, sympathize with the 
old, because they have had no like experiences. 

We enter into sympathy with our friends and with 
members of our own families more completely than with 
strangers or with those with whom our acquaintance is 
very limited. At the same time we sympathize to some 
extent with all members of the human family. Much 
that goes by the name of human sympathy is scarcely 
more than egoistic emotion. It expends itself altogether 
in the soul in which it rises. True sympathy prompts to 
appropriate words and acts, and expends itself upon 
others rather than upon one's self. 

There is a species of what may be called contagious 
sympathy which manifests itself in public meetings and 



l8o THE EMOTIONS 

in crowds assembled for almost any purpose. A '' mag- 
netic '' speaker, who understands human nature generally, 
and especially the character of his immediate audience, 
can touch and kindle their sympathy and sway them 
almost at his will. The contagion beginning with a few, 
finally runs through the whole multitude and sets them 
on fire. 

Pity is the emotion excited by the sight of any one in 
suffering and distress. It may be excited also by vivid 
descriptions. So far as the feeling is instinctive, no ac- 
count is taken of the occasion or cause of the misery ; 
it IS sufficient to know that a human being is suffering. 
The feeling is somewhat modified by the knowledge that 
the victim is reaping the natural fruit of his own sowing, 
or is suffering just punishment for crime ; but even then 
it does not entirely disappear. The judge may pity while 
he pronounces the severest penalty of the law, and the 
officer of the law may pity while he inflicts it. Pity is 
especially strong when the sufferer is weak and helpless. 
Our pity for a young child in severe pain is deeper than 
that for a stalwart man under similar conditions. Pity 
partakes of the nature of a sentiment. 

Compassion is a more profound emotion than pity. 
There is in it an element of fellowship in suffering. It 
manifests itself towards those who are weak and com- 
paratively helpless, and whose sufferings and miseries are 
exceedingly severe. It prompts to the breaking of fetters 
and the unbinding of chains. It pleads for the remission 
of even just punishment, when the remission can be safely 
granted. It is not, however, that maudlin sentimentality 
which confounds crime with misfortune, and the criminal 



ALARM, FEAR, ETC. l8l 

with the merely unfortunate. It would gladly turn aside 
the descending stroke of justice, but it does not palliate 
guilt nor make heroes of the guilty. The practical work- 
ing of true compassion is beautifully pictured in the story 
of the man who fell among robbers in his journey from 
Jerusalem to Jericho. 

Surprise, Wonder, etc. There is a group of emotions 
of which surprise and wonder may be taken as types. 
They manifest themselves most fully during the period 
of childhood. The young child is constantly wondering. 
Surprise is produced by the sudden appearance of some- 
thing unusual and unexpected. Wonder is a stronger 
and deeper emotion. When very intense we are over- 
come, speechless, incapable of movement. The child 
stands with open mouth and staring eyes. 

The order of intensity in this group is given as ^' sur- 
prise, admiration, wonder, amazement, astonishment." 
These emotions sometimes afford pleasure and some- 
times pain, but usually the pleasure or pain is slight in 
degree. 

Alarm, Fear, etc. Fear may be considered as a type 
of a large group of emotions of a personal nature. In in- 
tensity these emotions fall into this order : apprehension, 
alarm, fear, dread, terror. It is impossible to draw a 
sharp line of distinction between them, as one degree of 
a common feeling easily passes into another. In all cases 
there is anticipation of evil or danger, either near at hand 
or approaching, accompanied by a doubt as to one's 
power to avert it, or to escape from it. When the evil is 
indefinite, and is supposed to be remote, the feeling is 
apprehension ; the mind is uneasy, but not seriously 



l82 THE EMOTIONS 

disturbed, and the external appearance is not very much 
affected. 

When the evil is believed to be close at hand, and its 
greatness is magnified by uncertainty, the feeling be- 
comes alarm. The appearance and conduct of a person 
under the influence of this emotion exhibit evidence of 
great perturbation of mind and frequently of the absence 
of judgment and reason. 

Fear is a general term to denote any degree of the 
feeling which springs up when there is serious anticipa- 
tion of evil, danger, pain, or suffering, either near or 
remote. 

Dread is a deeper and more permanent feeling ; and 
terror is an exceedingly intense and violent form of fear. 
It usually produces great agitation of body and mind, and 
renders anything like sound judgment impossible. Like 
every other form of excessive feeling, it can continue but 
a short time in its highest intensity. These are only a 
few of the emotions which might be grouped under this 
head. 

Mr. Darwin's description of the influence of fear is full 
of interest, and will bear reproducing. 

*' Fear is often preceded by astonishment, and is so far 
akin to it that both lead to the senses of sight and hear- 
ing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and 
mouth are widely opened and the eyebrows raised. The 
frightened man at first stands like a statue, motionless 
and breathless, or crouches down as if instinctively to 
escape observation. The heart beats quickly and vio- 
lently, so that it palpitates or knocks against the ribs ; 
but it is very doubtful if it then works more efficiently 



DEFENSIVE EMOTIONS 1 83 

than usual, so as to send a greater supply of blood to all 
parts of the body, for the skin instantly becomes pale 
as during incipient fainting. In connection with the 
disturbed action of the heart the breathing is hurried. 
The salivary glands act imperfectly ; the mouth becomes 
dry and is often opened and shut. I have also noticed 
that under slight fear there is a strong tendency to yawn. 
One of the best-marked symptoms is the trembling of all 
the muscles of the body ; and this is often seen first in 
the lips. From this cause, and from the dryness of the 
mouth, the voice becomes husky or indistinct or may 
altogether fail. As fear increases into an agony of terror, 
we behold, as under all violent emotions, diversified re- 
sults. The heart beats wildly or fails to act, and faintness 
ensues ; there is a deathlike pallor ; the breathing is 
labored ; the wings of the nostrils are widely dilated ; 
there is a gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a 
tremor on the hollow cheek, a gulping and catching of the 
throat ; the uncovered and protruding eyeballs are fixed 
on the object of terror, or they roll restlessly from side to 
side. The pupils are said to be enormously dilated. All 
the muscles of the body may become rigid or may be 
thrown into convulsive movements. The hands are alter- 
nately clenched and opened, often with a twitching move- 
ment. The arms may be protruded as if to avert some 
dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the head." 
Defensive Emotions. The feelings of resentment and 
indignation are placed by some among the emotions of 
ill will, and resentment is regarded as the ultimate source 
of some of the worst passions of the human soul, such as 
retaliation and revenge. It is freely admitted that re- 



l84 THE EMOTIONS 

sentment bears some relation to these evil passions, and 
readily gives place to them, so that, in some cases, it is 
difficult to draw a distinct and well-marked line between 
them. But the same thing is true in respect to gen- 
erosity and prodigality. Things are not necessarily the 
same in nature because they touch one another or ap- 
proach so near as to be apparently mingled together. 
Many forms of evil are little else than good perverted and 
debased. 

Resentment is a feeling which prompts to self-defense 
and self-protection, and partakes of the nature of an 
emotion, and also of a sentiment, in so far as it is partly 
rational. It springs up in the soul when we believe our- 
selves to have been insulted, injured, or wantonly wronged 
by deliberate intention, and when the injury or wrong 
may work serious harm to us in person, reputation, or 
property. As the world now is, an emotion of this sort 
seems necessary for the preservation of life, and for the 
retention of self-respect and the respect of others. 

It does not, in its legitimate form, urge him who feels 
it to return injury for injury and wrong for wrong. It 
proposes to prevent the commission of further injury and 
to secure proper reparation when this is possible. It is 
not inconsistent with the spirit of forgiveness and good 
will, even to enemies. It is true kindness to save a per- 
son from doing evil, either to another or to himself, pro- 
vided the means employed are the mildest which will 
secure the result. 

Indignation is the feeling excited in view of injustice, 
injury, and wrong done to others, and prompts to 
their protection and their defense. Like resentment, 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 185 

it looks primarily only to the prevention of wrong- 
doing, but it does not disapprove when deserved pun- 
ishment is inflicted upon deliberate perpetrators of 
injustice and crime. It leads one to defend his family, 
his friends, and neighbors; one state to aid another un- 
justly attacked ; philanthropists to seek to deliver men 
everywhere from oppression and tyranny. 

Usually injustice and wrong inflicted upon others, 
especially if distance separates them from us, touch us 
less keenly than similar acts inflicted upon ourselves. 
There is, consequently, need that the feeling of just in- 
dignation receive proper cultivation and right direction in 
the minds of the young. It will be allowable to arouse 
and direct indignation against the strong who oppress 
and abuse the weak, Avhether the example be that of a 
strong nation wronging and oppressing a weak one, or 
that of a big, strong boy abusing and illtreating a younger 
and weaker companion on the playground ; against those 
who take advantage of the ignorance or necessities of 
others to obtain property for much less than its value ; 
against those who inflict acts of wanton cruelty upon 
animals. Examples of real occurrences will usually be 
more effective than imaginary ones. Care, of course, should 
be taken that indignation is not expressed in a wrong 
manner or in an excessive degree. 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER.^ 

1. What emotions are ; how they difter from sensations and senti- 

ments ; examples. 

2. When emotions become passions. 



1 86 THE EMOTIONS 

3. The lower animals. 

4. DifferePxCe in susceptibility to emotions. 

5. The temperament ; what temperament is. 

6. Names of the temperaments ; corresponding mental traits. 

7. Moods and dispositions ; names ; effect of habit. 

8. Expression of emotions ; Mr. Darwin's statement ; quotation 

from Dr. Davis. 

9. Reflex influence of conduct ; general law. 

10. Management of children. 

11. Character fashioned by such training. 

12. Quotation from Professor James. 

13. Subdivisions of the emotions. The egoistic and personal emo- 

tions ; necessary within proper limits. 

14. Some of the offensive personal emotions. 

15. The altruistic and social emotions ; examples. 

16. Some groups of emotions. Simple-emotions ; some examples ; 

in early childhood ; relation of the physical and psy- 
chical ; the feelings opposite to the joyous ones ; knowl- 
edge needed in order to treat children justly. 

17. Emotions of gladness and joy and their opposites in the mature 

mind. 

18. Order of increasing intensity ; lov^est ; highest. 

19. Opposite emotions ; effect of grief ; of woe. 

20. Emotions of good will, of love ; some of the most important of 

these ; parental, filial, and fraternal love. 

21. Value of friendship ; origin ; influence on life. 

22. Emotions of ill will, of hate. Prejudice ; influence ; sources ; 

when very strong. 

23. Anger; general character ; effects upon the body ; rage; bor- 

ders upon temporary insanity ; plea of " quick temper " ; 
management of children. 

24. Envy ; usual origin ; how manifested ; accompanies emula- 

tion ; definitions of emulation ; when good, when bad ; 
effect of undue stimulation. 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTEk 1^7 

25. jealousy ; origin ; differs from envy ; appears early ; in ani- 

mals ; becomes a passion. 

26. Malice, hatred, revenge ; each described. 

27. Just punishment not revenge ; condition of affairs in a state ; 

feeling of ofhcers of justice. 

28. Sympathy, compassion, etc. ; sympathy more than emotion ; 

v^^hat it is ; experience necessary ; who cannot sympathize 
and who can ; the aged and the young ; sympathy with 
friends, etc. ; contagious sympathy in a crowd. 

29. Pity ; origin and manifestations. 

30. Compassion; how differs from pity; how manifests itself; 

does not confound misfortune and crime. 

31. Surprise, wonder, etc. ; surprise and wonder types of this 

group ; in childhood »; description of each ; effect of won- 
der ; order of intensity. 

32. Alarm, fear, etc. ; fear the type of the group ; order of inten- 

sity ; description of each emotion ; fear a general term ; 
dread ; terror ; effect of terror. 

33. Mr. Darwin's description of the effects of fear. 

34. Defensive emotions ; resentment described ; its office ; origin ; 

necessary. Indignation ; origin ; office ; does not disap- 
prove just punishment ; need of cultivation. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE SENTIMENTS. 

Not Separable. As previously stated, the emotions 
and sentiments cannot be separated by any distinct line. 
The most that can be said with certainty is that the 
spontaneous emotional element predominates in the one 
class, and the rational element in the other. The emo- 
tions verge into the character of sentiments ; the senti- 
ments partake of the emotional character when they 
become more intense. 

What Sentiments are. The sentiments are feelings 
which have their origin in rational considerations. They 
are usually the result of processes of judging and reason- 
ing. They are one side of an activity of the intellect in 
some form. The activity may be perception, or it may be 
representation, or imagination, or judgment, or reason. 
They are almost always highly complex, and frequently 
difficult to analyze in any satisfactory manner. A being 
without reason is incapable of experiencing sentiment. 
Hence the brutes, though subject to various emotions and 
passions, are destitute of sentiment. 

As to Classification. Various classifications of the 
sentiments have been made, but no one is entirely satis- 
factory. The following is adopted here, as being on the 

whole as good as any proposed : 

1 88 



THE SENTIMENT OF TRUTH 1 89 

1. The Intellectual Sentiments. 

2. The ^Esthetic Sentiments. 

3. The Ethical or Moral and Religious Sentiments. 

THE INTELLECTUAL SENTIMENTS. 

The center or core of all intellectual sentiment is the 
love of the discovery of truth, and of the acquisition of 
knowledge. 

The Sentiment of Truth is one of the deepest and 
strongest of which the soul is conscious. It rises at times 
to the highest pitch of enthusiasm. Men cheerfully suf- 
fer for the truth ; endure the loss of property, of social 
position, of political preferment, and of life itself. The 
martyr rejoices to die for the truth. It does not matter 
if the martyr is in error; if what he has embraced and be- 
lieves to be truth, is in fact not truth. Subjectively his faith 
is the truth ; objectively it may have no suflficient foun- 
dation. The subjective is to him the only real and true. 

Several elements enter into the complex sentiment of 
truth. There is, first, the pleasure of search, of pursuit, 
of striving to attain. The chase is more than the game ; 
the anticipation seems often to afford more joy than actual 
possession. United with the pleasure of the search is 
the still richer pleasure of discovery. As the search pro- 
gresses, one new fragment of truth after another is grasped, 
one new principle after another, and even one new method 
of search and effort after another. The student enjoys 
the labor involved in the solution of mathematical prob- 
lems, and rejoices in the final victory over all obstacles. 
He discovers new applications of principles and finds in- 
tense pleasure in the discovery. 



IQO THE SENTIMENTS 

Acquisition and Possession, The pleasure of acquisi- 
tion and possession has already been touched upon, but it 
deserves a few words more. The desire to acquire and pos- 
sess material things makes itself felt as soon as a child 
becomes acquainted with external objects, and has 
strength enough to grasp them. At first, the egoistic ele- 
ment so predominates, that the child regards everything 
as belonging to himself ; others have no rights which he 
is '' bound to respect." At this period the pleasure seems 
to be that of possession alone, with little or no reference 
to use or value. Simply to have and hold is enough. 
Later the idea of value appears. 

In a few singularly constituted minds this pleasure of 
mere possession appears to continue into mature years. 
The miser hoards money, not to use it, but for the enjoy- 
ment of hoarding and holding. The pleasure of the pos- 
session of knowledge is not less than that resulting from 
the possession of money, or lands, or '^ stocks and bonds." 

The Sentiment of Superiority assumes almost an infi- 
nite variety of aspects. It sometimes seeks power and 
influence. Even children find gratification in controlling 
inanimate objects, and in exercising dominion over animals. 
By an easy transition the child finds pleasure in master- 
ship over other children. The boy prefers to be '' driver " 
rather than '* horse " on the playground, and to bean offi- 
cer instead of a private when he acts the part of a mimic 
soldier. 

This sentiment does not always or necessarily have re- 
gard to the exercise of dominion over other men. It 
urges to efforts to attain superior excellence, superior 
knowledge, superior rank and position, but not for the 



SENTIMENTS OK THE LUDICROUS, ETC. I9I 

purpose of making others subordinate or subservient. 
The sentiment may only urge one to make the most and 
best of his own abilities, resources, and opportunities, to 
reach the highest possible degree of personal excellence. 

Superiority over the forces of nature, and over the 
obstacles which material things present, affords a high 
degree of gratification of this feeling. Control over what 
we call nature and over the animal creation is necessary 
to the progress of civilization and to the full development 
of the powers and capacities of the human race. Even 
the dominion of man over his fellows against their desire 
may sometimes be productive of good ; but the right to 
such dominion is doubtful, and the result is, in most 
cases, tyranny and despotism, with all their terrible evils. 
Ambition is a word of ambiguous meaning, but is most 
generally employed to denote the sentiment of superiority 
when it prompts to the seeking for honor, place, and 
power, with no regard for the interests, rights, or good of 
others. It is, however, often used with a good significa- 
tion. We speak of individuals as being ambitious to be- 
come excellent, to become learned, to be useful, to do 
good, and to render others happy. 

Sentiments of the Ludicrous, Wit, Humor. The sen- 
timents of the ludicrous, of wit and humor, etc., are in- 
tellectual with a considerable admixture of emotion. 
These feelings arise mostly from the sudden and unex- 
pected discovery of certain resemblances between things 
very unlike in other respects, or from temporary relation- 
ships between things, places, or situations which are 
altogether incongruous. A dog in the church or in the 
schoolroom excites a laugh on account of the supposed 



192 THE SENTIMENTS 

incongruity between the animal and the place. An 
elegantly dressed fop splashed with mud, or fishing for his 
hat in a puddle of dirty water, excites the same feelings 
and same modes of expression. In these cases the senti- 
ment is entirely of the ludicrous ; wit and humor find 
no place. It is impossible to find any adequate or satis- 
factory definition of wit or humor. They are related and 
yet have marked differences. Wit is usually a single 
brilliant utterance, coming suddenly like a flash. Its 
essence may be found in a single word, or in a play upon 
words similar in sound but dissimilar in meaning. 
Humor does not flash for an instant merely, but shines 
for a longer time, usually with a sort of mellow and cheer- 
ing light. Genuine humor is good-natured even in its 
sharpest attacks, while wit often bites and stings. Wit 
sometimes passes into sarcasm and satire. Some one says, 
" Wit laughs at things ; humor laughs with them. Wit 
is abrupt, darting, scornful, and tosses its analogies in 
your face ; humor is slow and shy, insinuating its fun into 
your heart." Unfortunately wit and humor, as commonly 
cultivated, have a tendency downward. Frequently vul- 
garity is mistaken for wit and senseless drivel for humor. 
In such cases the true sentiment of wit and humor is 
exchanged for the fitting feelings of contempt and 
disgust. 

Sentiment of Freedom. A feeling of restraint is always 
painful. It may be the repression of superabundant nerv- 
ous energy, it may be the denial of liberty of physical 
movement, it may be the forbidding of freedom of speech, 
it may be the closing and barring of the entrance to some 
occupation or profession, it may be exclusion from polit- 



PERSONAL SENTIMENTS I93 

ical, social, or religious rights and privileges. The re- 
straint may be in any one, or in several of these forms, 
but in whatever form, it is irksome, painful, depressing. 
Long and severe repression disheartens, unmans, results 
either in the lethargy or in the desperation of despair. 
The love of liberty and the hatred of fettering tyranny 
have always been among the strongest incentives to brave 
deeds and noble efforts in behalf either of self or of hu- 
manity. The higher character of the sentiment of freedom 
is sometimes tarnished by making it responsible for the 
excesses and crimes of unbridled license and anarchy. 

Personal Sentiments are very numerous and of great 
variety. Some are elevated and noble ; others are low and 
debasing. Only a few can be named here ; the student 
may be required to enlarge the list. Among the senti- 
ments which are offensive, in a greater or less degree, are 
pride, haughtiness, superciliousness, undue self-esteem, 
self-confidence, self-conceit, and vanity. Some of the 
opposites of these are humiliation, mortification, self- 
abasement, self-depreciation. Humility is one of the 
noble sentiments and should not be classed with humilia- 
tion. The feeling of humiliation is experienced when one 
has, in some way, been dishonored, degraded, and sub- 
jected to insult by another. Mortification results from 
some act, or some failure to act, for which our judgment 
condemns us. The student is humiliated when he is 
compared unfavorably with a classmate of less ability than 
himself ; he is mortified at a failure in the performance of 
some task in which he might have succeeded if he had 
made proper effort. 

Personal honor is one of the noblest and most power- 
13 



194 THE SENTIMENTS 

ful of the personal sentiments. It often has more bind- 
ing force than any legal obligation. It forbids indulgence 
in anything low, mean, or degrading ; it is exceedingly 
sensitive, sometimes apparently over-sensitive. This sen- 
timent is not incompatible with true humility, though it 
will not submit to humiliation or patiently endure insult. 
It bears no relationship to self-conceit or overmuch of self- 
esteem. It regards self as sacred, but recognizes and re- 
spects nobility and honor in others. It demands no more 
than it is ready to grant to others. 

ESTHETIC SENTIMENTS. 

When they arise. The aesthetic sentiments arise 
in connection with the intellectual perception and con- 
templation of what is called beautiful in nature, in art, in 
language, especially in the poetic form. We have here 
no concern with theories as to the original source of 
the idea of beauty. It is sufficient for our purpose to say 
that some objects and some ideas and combinations of 
objects and ideas, either presented or represented, excite 
certain peculiarly agreeable feelings which we name sen- 
timents of beauty or of the beautiful. Objects are called 
beautiful when they cause such sentiments to arise. 

Taste. The ability of the mind to perceive and judge 
of the beautiful, and the capacity to enjoy it, are called 
taste. It is a native endowment of the soul, susceptible, 
like other endowments, of development and cultivation. 
Good taste perceives at once the fitness of things, and 
how to make proper combinations and arrangements of 
these. It also perceives fitness and propriety of conduct 
and speech, and how to behave and speak accordingly. 



BEAUTY 195 

Standards of Taste, It is sometimes affirmed that 
there is no standard of taste ; that individuals differ, that 
nations differ, and that agreement in respect to the beau- 
tiful has never been secured, and, in the nature of things, 
never can be secured. It is readily admitted that the 
standard of good taste cannot be an absolute and unvary- 
ing one ; that provision must be made for individual pe- 
culiarities and for variations within certain limits. The 
standard of taste among rude and uncultivated tribes, 
and among partially civilized peoples, will not be the 
same as among highly cultured and refined nations. And 
in the same country there will be some variations in taste 
growing out of different degrees of education and out of 
local conditions and peculiarities. 

It is true also that differences of taste will appear in the 
same community and among persons of equal intelligence 
and experience. But these differences are not usually 
radical ; there is still substantial agreement upon all im- 
portant points. 

The received standard of aesthetics is the concurrent 
opinion or judgment of the great majority of the intelligent 
people of any community, or of any country, or of any 
period in history. Some things will be considered in 
good taste anywhere and everywhere, and other things 
will be regarded as in bad taste just as universally. 
Great changes in literary taste take place from age to age. 
The style of Cooper's writings is not the approved style 
of to-day ; even Irving and Bancroft belong to a former 
period. The reasons for changes in literary style cannot 
be inquired into in this connection. 

Elements of Sensuous Beauty. The feelings of 



196 THE SENTIMENTS 

beauty experienced through the activity of the senses are 
called sensuous. These feelings arise when natural ob- 
jects are presented or are represented. Only the senses 
of sight and hearing give occasion for the production of 
aesthetic sentiments to any appreciable extent. In ob- 
jects of sight the elements of beauty are color, form, and 
symmetry of parts and arrangement. Motion contributes 
to the same result. Isolated figures and bodies are more 
beautiful when bounded by curved or wavy lines and sur- 
faces. In symmetrical combinations straight lines and 
plane surfaces are found to give equal pleasure. The 
movements of single objects, either animate or inanimate, 
are more pleasing when in curved or wavy lines ; but 
when numbers of objects move together according to 
some definite plan, so that the movements become 
mingled and bear harmonious relations to one another, 
the movements of individuals may be in straight- lines, 
and still produce an effect equally agreeable. The influ- 
ence of color upon the sentiment of beauty depends upon 
the proper arrangement and combination of similars and 
contrasts. 

In natural objects, like trees, the elements of form and 
color are often united. This combination heightens the 
effect. In the tree there is usually an adaptation of part 
to part, giving symmetry of form and outline. There is 
also a variety of tints and shades in color produced by 
the reflection of light from the foliage as it moves in 
different directions. 

Pictures and other works of art appeal to the sense of 
sight by essentially the same qualities as natural objects. 
In this case, however, we have representation instead of 



SENTIMENTS OF THE SUBLIME, ETC. I97 

presentation, but representation different from that given 
in language, being more vivid and approaching nearer to 
reality. Consequently the effect is deeper and more 
pleasing. 

Influence of Music and Poetry. The influence of 
music upon the feelings is due partly to the tones them- 
selves and partly to the power of association. A simple 
air, associated with the scenes and friends of childhood, 
often seems more full of beauty than the most artistic 
compositions of the great masters. 

In poetry, also, association is as potent a factor as the 
rhythm and harmony of the words and the beauty and 
brilliancy of the thoughts. 

Language, whether in poetry or prose, is properly called 
beautiful when it so appeals to the representative power 
of the imagination as to fill the mind with successive and 
vivid pictures, which, by their character, excite and keep 
alive a feeling agreeable and pleasing, but not too intense 
or overpowering. 

Sentiment of the Sublime, etc. It is as dif^cult to 
define the sublime as the beautiful. Some of the elements 
of sublimity are vastness, power, and strength. A lofty, 
precipitous, and craggy mountain is called a sublime 
object. A mighty cataract, the ocean in violent commo- 
tion, a terrific thunderstorm, a roaring tornado, and 
other similar natural objects and events are sublime. 
The sublime in literature generally consists of vivid descrip- 
tions of the sublime in nature, or of representative pictures 
involving the same elements. Ideas of grandeur, im- 
mensity, of the boundless and unlimited in space, time, or 
might, are properly regarded as sublime. Most sublime 



I9S THE SENTIMENTS 

objects and ideas suggest something still greater, grander, 
and mightier beyond and above them, and thus touch the 
mysterious and incomprehensible. 

Sentiments of Beauty and Sublimity differ. While 
the sublime is kindred with the beautiful and is aesthetic 
in its nature, its influence upon the soul is quite unlike 
that of beauty. The beautiful charms, soothes, quiets, 
fills the mind with peaceful delight. It often stirs deeply 
but not violently ; it excites, but the excitement is 
not tumultuous. It never alarms or terrifies or causes 
pain. 

On the other hand, the sublime, in some of its forms, 
excites fear and even terror and other painful feelings. 
Usually the sentiment of sublimity is more intense and 
absorbing than that of the beautiful. However, it does 
not always. alarm and terrify. In some forms it excites 
awe, reverence, and even adoration. It naturally turns 
the thoughts from the vast finite to the vaster infinite ; 
from the power of finite elements and forces to the Infinite 
force and might. 

The Influence of Association has been incidentally re- 
ferred to in another connection. This influence is uni- 
versally recognized, and by some is regarded as the orig- 
inal source of the sentiment of beauty itself. Without 
accepting this theory we may cheerfully admit the depth 
and strength of its power. An object which has no 
" form or comeliness " is beautiful in our eyes because it 
belonged years ago to some one dearly loved. Some 
locality, rough, barren, unsightly, is beautiful to us because 
it was the home of childhood, and near by rest the mortal 
remains of generations of ancestors. A book is sacred 



FEELING OF UTILITY AND ADAPTATION I99 

and beautiful, though torn and worn, because it was the 
valued treasure of a mother or some other dear friend. 
We admire the scenery of the Rhine or the Hudson, be- 
cause of its association with literature, history, and 
legend. 

The influence of association goes beyond the element of 
mere beauty. It touches the sentiments of patriotism 
and reverence, penetrating into the realm of the moral 
and religious feelings. Plymouth, Bunker Hill, Saratoga, 
Yorktown, and scores of other places, when visited, kindle 
feelings of patriotism in all those whose ancestors were 
actors in the events which have rendered these places 
memorable. We call the soil of Palestine sacred because 
it was trodden by the feet of the Christ and his apostles. 
Further illustrations of the influence of association are 
unnecessary. 

Feeling of Utility and Adaptation. There is a decid- 
edly pleasurable sentiment connected with things useful 
and with those showing peculiar adaptation to some pur- 
pose, but it is not the sentiment of beauty in the proper 
sense of the term. A complicated machine made of the 
finest material and fashioned by the most exquisite skill, 
performing its work with marvelous rapidity and pre- 
cision, and with an appearance of almost human intelli- 
gence, is called beautiful, and its functions are said to be 
executed beautifully. But the feelings excited by the 
machine and its work are not like those felt when one 
views a beautiful landscape or some beautiful piece of 
sculpture or some painting of a great master. The useful 
and the beautiful are not correlative. A thing may be 
useful, like a spade, without being beautiful ; and a thing 



200 THE SENTIMENTS 

may be beautiful, as the rainbow or the falls of Minnehaha, 
without being useful. 

ETHICAL OR MORAL SENTIMENTS. 

In another chapter the moral nature will be more fully 
considered. At this point we are concerned only with 
one aspect of it, the sentiments. 

Occasion and Basis of Moral Sentiments. The moral 
feelings are excited by the contemplation of human con- 
duct and human character, the character being indicated 
by the conduct. That in the conduct which causes the 
sentiment to appear is its rightness or wrongness. 

The idea of right or wrong in conduct presupposes some 
law or rule of behavior to which conduct should conform. 
This law is known as the moral law ; in this we have the 
basis of moral sentiment. With the origin of moral law 
we are not now concerned ; the existence of such a law is 
suflficiently attested by experience. 

Relations implied, etc. Conduct implies social rela- 
tions ; out of these relations grow obligations and duties. 
Conduct should recognize and meet these obligations and 
perform these duties. In view of law and relations and 
obligations, the feeling of oughtness, of necessity, arises. 
We feel that this should be done, and that that should be 
avoided. 

Sentiments of Approbation and Disapprobation. When 
conduct, either our own or that of others, conforms to 
moral law, meets obligations, performs duties, we are 
conscious of a feeling of approbation. When the conduct 
is our own we experience a feeling of satisfaction, of self- 



FREE WILL, MOTIVES, ETC. 201 j 

approval, of peace and rest of soul. We approve the 
parent who performs well the duties of parenthood ; the 
child who regards the will and wishes of his parents ; 
the friend who denies self to meet the needs of a friend ; 
the citizen who sacrifices property or life for his country. 

On the other hand when conduct is out of harmony 
with moral law, feelings of disapprobation, of condem- 
nation arise. If the conduct is ours, we condemn ourselves. 
If the violation of law and obligation is flagrant, our self- 
condemnation is correspondingly severe. It passes into 
reproach, shame, and sometimes into remorse. If the 
conduct is that of others, our disapprobation becomes 
condemnation and indignation. In extreme cases punish- 
ment is demanded. 

Free Will, Motives, etc. In order that an individual 
may be approved or disapproved for his conduct^ one must 
knozv that the conduct is the choice of the person, that he is 
doing what he prefers to do, that no compulsion is piit 
upon him. The conduct which is com^pelled, zvhich could 
not have been otherwise, is the conduct of a machine or of 
a?i auto7naton ; it is destitute of moral character ; it mer- 
its neither approval nor disapproval. 

We are conscious, also, of going behind the conduct in 
many cases, and of inquiring why the behavior is such as 
it is, what motive prompted it, or what purpose was in 
view. The soul refuses to approve itself or others for 
deeds, however good in themselves, which are done for 
impure or selfish reasons. The condemnation is directed 
rather against the motive than against the conduct. This 
brings us to a consideration of character rather than of 
conduct. The motives, purposes, intentions, indicate the 



202 THE SENTIMENTS 

nature of the inner man, the real man ; they make known 
the character. 

Some Special Sentiments. Only a few of the moral sen- 
timents can receive special notice. Friendship and sym- 
pathy, which have much of the nature of sentiments, have 
already been considered. Beginning with the affections 
of the home, we go out to the neighborhood, to the 
State, to the country, and finally to all humanity. 

Patriotism is the sentiment which embraces one's 
country and one's countrymen. It is a sentiment which 
commands approval ; it has always been regarded as 
praiseworthy to love one's own country above other coun- 
tries. Not that we love other lands less, but our own 
more. This sentiment may be perverted and turned to 
the accomplishment of the basest purposes. Great crimes 
have been committed in the name of patriotism and lib- 
erty. But naturally men love and cherish their own fam- 
ilies in preference to the families of others ; they care 
more for their immediate neighbors than for people living 
at a distance. Ethical questions are not here under con- 
sideration ; the fact is as stated. The inhabitants of the 
same country are neighbors as compared with men upon 
the opposite side of the earth. They have common 
interests, needs, history, language. All these bind them 
together, and create mutual regard, esteem, and affection. 

Philanthropy goes beyond patriotism ; it is the sen- 
timent of good will which embraces all mankind ; it re- 
gards the human race without reference to questions of 
time or place, of color or condition. The sentiment of 
philanthropy does not appear in human character and 
conduct until much of development has taken place. It 



gratitude:, justice 203 

scarcely made itself felt in the childhood of the race. It 
could not take on its highest form until something of a 
common nature was recognized. With the progress of 
civilization, with the increase of intercourse between 
nations and peoples, with the growing demands of com- 
merce, the sentiment of philanthropy has been more and 
more developed. It will never supersede patriotism, but 
will rather supplement it, as the love of friends supple- 
ments the love of kindred. 

The Sentiments of Admiration, Reverence, Adoration, 
etc. Moral worth inspires respect ; when manifested in 
a high degree respect passes into admiration ; in a still 
higher degree it creates the profounder sentiment of rev- 
erence. Reverence readily leads to adoration when moral 
excellence is combined with superhuman power. At this 
point moral sentiment becomes mingled with religious 
sentiment, involving trust and confidence and approacji- 
ing to the nature of faith. 

Gratitude, Justice. The sentiment of gratitude arises 
when some good has been received and accepted ; the 
greater the good, the more profound is the gratitude. 
The feeling is still deeper if the favor bestowed has cost 
the giver inconvenience and self-denial. Gratitude makes 
no account of position or character, or of the opinions 
held by others of the benefactor. It looks only at the 
kindness done and received, and, for the time, sees noth- 
ing else. Real gratitude may be felt and honestly ex- 
pressed towards a person who could not be loved as a 
friend, or even esteemed as a worthy member of society. 
This sentiment combines with filial love and tends to 
render that emotion deeper and more permanent. In 



204 THE SENTIMENTS 

some cases it becomes an element in friendship. But if 
it enters largely into this, the purity of the friendship is 
impaired from the fact that one of the parties cannot 
avoid the feeling of obligation, and the freedom which 
comes from the idea of equality is necessarily lost. Under 
such conditions some degree of painful restraint is sure 
to be felt by the person receiving the favor. Friendship; 
in the highest sense of the word, cannot exist in connec- 
tion with a feeling of obligation and dependence. 

Ingratitude is universally and rightly regarded as an 
indication of a base and despicable nature. It has no 
excuse or palliation, and finds no defenders. Benefactors 
may, ^and probably sometimes do, mar the beauty of 
noble deeds by expecting too large returns in way of 
acknowledgment and feelings of obligation ; but even 
this, although it may render the relation between giver 
and receiver irksome, will not justify the withholding of 
that which is due. 

Gratitude, being a rational feeling, is only slightly felt 
by the young. It can take no strong hold upon the mind 
until the higher intellectual powers and the moral nature 
are considerably developed and matured. The young 
child cannot be expected to comprehend relations and 
the obligations which grow out of them. Disappoint- 
ment is often felt by parents and teachers at the apparent 
ingratitude of children, while the fact is they are really 
incapable of experiencing the feeling to the extent de- 
manded. The grace of gratitude should be cultivated by 
all appropriate means. 

Sentiment of Justice. Justice bears a close relation 
to gratitude. The essence of justice is that every man 



SENTIMENT OF MORAL BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY 20$ 

should receive his due, should have that which belongs 
to him. Gratitude belongs to the benefactor ; receiving 
it, he has only that which is rightly his. But justice goes 
beyond this ; it requires that much should be given when 
nothing has been received. The parent has received 
nothing from the young child, yet simple justice requires 
from the parent care and protection for the child. The 
province of justice is exceedingly broad ; it embraces 
most of the ordinary relations of domestic, social, and 
civil life. Justice requires of the man obedience to the 
laws of the state, of the state itself obedience to the laws 
of nations. In the ordinary relations of life justice de- 
mands honesty, uprightness, integrity, truthfulness be- 
tween man and man in all affairs of business, in '^ buying 
and selling and getting gain." Justice requires that one 
care for the good name, the reputation, the comfort and 
convenience of his fellows. 

In another aspect justice asks that the evil-doer suffer 
the proper penalty for his evil-doings ; that the thief re- 
store the stolen goods with manifold addition ; that the 
robber and murderer be made to pay the penalty appro- 
priate to their crimes. The sentiment of justice approves 
all this, but does not refuse to permit mercy to find place 
when the safety of society allows. 

Sentiment of Moral Beauty and Sublimity. We 
discern in the characters and conduct of some individuals 
of our acquaintance, and of others of whom we hear or 
read, certain qualities which may be appropriately called 
morally beautiful. We perceive the same qualities in 
many actions considered apart from the actors. We find 
ourselves drawn by a natural attraction towards such in- 



206 THE SENTIMENTS 

dividuals and such actions, as we are drawn towards a 
beautiful landscape, a beautiful picture, or any beautiful 
work of art. A feeling is excited called the sentiment of 
moral beauty or moral sublimity. 

The characters which cause the feeling of moral beauty 
are usually marked by quiet, unaffected, unostentatious, 
and apparently unconscious goodness. The acts are ex- 
pressive of love, pity, kindness, tenderness, and sympathy. 
There is no exhibition of peculiar power or strength. 

The acts which excite the sentiments of moral sublimity 
are such as show goodness combined with great energy 
and might. Courage and heroism are united with tender- 
ness and devotion to right and duty. Examples of such 
characters and such deeds are abundant in biographies and 
histories, and they are not infrequent in the records of 
common, daily life. The familiar story of *^ the Good 
Samaritan " appeals to the sentiment of moral beauty. 
So also do the words and conduct of Sir Philip Sidney 
when wounded and dying on the battlefield. *^ Being 
thirsty with excess of bleeding, he called for drink, which 
was presently brought him ; but as he was putting it to 
his mouth, he saw a poor soldier carried along, mortally 
wounded, casting his eyes at the vessel of water ; which 
Sir Philip perceiving, he took the water from his own 
lips, before tasting, and gave it to the poor man with these 
words: * Thy necessity is greater than mine.'** The 
sight or description of a strong, determined man, holding 
steadily on in the pursuit of some grand purpose, or of 
some imperative duty, never hesitating, never faltering, 
though surrounded by danger, and at times baffled and 
forced backward by obstacles and disasters, risking the 



CULTIVATION OF THE EMOTIONAL NATURE 20/ 

loss of all things, even of life itself, excites the sentiment 
of moral sublimity. 

The sentiment of moral beauty is closely related to the 
love of truth, goodness, purity, and all excellence, and 
tends to kindle such love in the soul. The sentiment of 
moral sublimity has a natural kinship to the feelings of 
respect and reverence for age, for order, for just laws, for 
legitimate authority. For these and other reasons the 
sentiments of moral beauty and sublimity should be care- 
fully cultivated in the minds of the young. 

Cultivation of the Emotional Nature. Only a few 
suggestions will be added under this head. The universal 
law of development and culture is appropriate exercise. 
The exercise requires conditions and direction. 

(i) Afford the good emotions a7id sentiments opportuni- 
ties for full and free expression. Supply suitable material 
to excite the sentiment of beauty^ and give such directions 
as may be necessary to enable a child ^ or an uncultivated 
per son y to lay hold upon the elements of beauty in the objects 
presented. Nature is full of the beautiful, but the eyes 
must be open to see it, and the ears to hear it. Atten- 
tion wanders unless helped to right direction. The 
sublime is not as abundant as the beautiful, but it may 
be found if it is looked for. It is worth while to make 
efforts to visit places and scenes noted for beauty and 
sublimity. 

The altruistic feelings of friendship, love, pity, sym- 
pathy, and compassion find opportunities and room for 
expression as the child, or the man, mingles in society,, 
and seeks the companionship of his fellows. Real and' 
concrete cases of suffering should be found, and not the^ 



208 THE SENTIMENTS 

imaginary ones of an exciting fictitious story. The stir- 
ring of an emotion of pity or sympathy, under conditions 
such that the feeling can find no healthful mode of ex- 
pression, does harm rather than good. The emotions 
aroused by a tale of real sorrow should be directed to the 
search for sorrows near at hand which need relief. 

(2) Repress, as far as possible, all evil emotions and 
passions, and prevent their expression. The importance 
of this has been referred to elsewhere. Anger, especially, 
has need of repression in children. In dealing with the 
young, care should be taken not to give occasion for ex- 
citing the evil passions. Habits are easily formed ; one 
burst of passion prepares the way for another, and the 
current of feeling soon acquires a strong tendency to run 
in a wrong direction. 

(3) Make the surroundiiigs of the family, and the school, 
and the social life, as beautiful and agreeable as possible. 
Do not place on the zvalls of the home or the school- 
room gaudy caricatures of scenes, or persons, or great 
events. Really beautiful pictures can be obtained at little 
expense, and statuettes and small busts are within the 
reach of persons of very limited means. The picture is a 
silent but most effective teacher ; it transfers its form and 
color and beauty to the walls of the inner chambers of the 
soul. It develops and educates the taste, and creates a 
love for the refined and pure in nature, in art, and in 
social life and intercourse. 

(4) Make the beautiful and good sources of constant en- 
joyment, and so enticing and alluring to t lie yoking. The 

old idea that there is a natural and necessary antagonism 
between enjoyment and goodness, between the body and 



CULTIVATION OF THE EMOTIONAL NATURE 209 

the soul, is losing its power. The universe is full of 
beauty, and one can find it if his soul has been expanded 
to give it room, if his taste has been cultivated to appre- 
ciate and enjoy it. It is not far from the truth to say that 
it is one*s duty to enjoy the beautiful and the good by 
which he is surrounded, and to help others to share in the 
enjoyment. The cheerful emotions and sentiments should 
be cultivated. The predominant tone of the personal life, 
and the life of the family, and of society, should be made 
cheerful and warm. Temperament has much to do with the 
tone of our living, but even temperament can be modified. 

Do not, hozvever, make iJie mistake of seeking enjoy- 
ment as a7t end ; it is not obtained in that way. Sought 
thus, it flies as a shadozv \ it always escapes the grasp. It 
should be so, and always will be so. Enjoyment comes as 
an attendant ttpon our deeds ; living worthily w^e enjoy the 
satisfaction which results from such living. The good 
done to others from pure motives is reflected back into 
our own hearts in the form of satisfaction and happiness. 

(5) Make all education beautiful, and attractive, as far 
as possible, to those who are being educated. There are 
tasks in the processes of learning, but even these can be 
rendered sources of enjoyment by dwelling upon the joy 
of mastery and the pleasure of conquest. Make even 
the drudgery of daily life, if it be drudgery, attractive by 
the temper and spirit which pervade it. Little acts of 
kindness, little deeds of charity, little words of courtesy, 
kindness and good cheer, as one is busy with his common 
labors, fill the soul with the sentiment of moral beauty. 
The true, the good, and the beautiful should always be har- 
moniously united and blended in character and conduct. 
14 



2IO THE SENTIMENTS 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 

1. Emotions and sentiments not separable. 

2. What sentiments are. 

3. As to classification, intellectual, sesthetic, moral. 

4. The intellectual sentiments : (a) truth ; (b) acquisition and 

possession ; (c) superiority ; (d) ludicrous, wit, humor ; 
(e) freedom. 

5. Personal sentiments, pride, etc. ; the opposites ; personal 

honor. 

6. Esthetic sentiments. 

7. Taste, standards of taste. 

8. Elements of sensuous beauty ; color, form, symmetry, motion. 

9. Influence of music and poetry. 

10. The sublime, etc. 

11. Beauty and sublimity differ. 

12. Influence of association. 

13. Utility and adaptation. 

14. Ethical or moral sentiments. 

15. Occasion and basis of moral sentiment. 

16. Relations implied, etc. 

17. Approbation and disapprobation. 

18. Free will, motives, etc. 

19. Some special sentiments : (a) patriotism, (b) philanthropy. 

20. Admiration, reverence, adoration. 

21. Gratitude, ingratitude, justice. 

22. Moral beauty and sublimity. 

23. Cultivation of the emotional nature, suggestions : 

(i) Give good emotions opportunities for expression. 

(2) Repress the evil feelings ; prevent their expression. 

(3) Make surroundings beautiful. 

(4) Make the beautiful and good sources of enjoyment. 

(5) Make all education beautiful, and daily life also. 



CHAPTER XIL 

DESIRE ; THE WILL. 

What Desire is. Desire is a complex mental state 
and activity. On the one side it is feeling ; but it has 
another side, of which we are conscious, which is more 
than feeling. There is a psychical tension, a stretching 
after something, which is entirely unlike ordinary feeling. 
Moreover, feelings are transitory ; when intense, they 
soon expend themselves and subside. Desires, on the 
other hand, may continue for any length of time, and 
even increase in intensity. 

Desire defined. Desire is a craving of the soul for 
some real or supposed good. In this definition the ele- 
ment of feeling is omitted. The term good, as here 
employed, has no reference to any moral quality or char- 
acter in the object desired. The good means anything 
which will satisfy the craving, and from the possession of 
which it is believed that pleasure, enjoyment, satisfaction, 
or happiness will be derived. The good of one person 
will not be the good of another; the good of the child 
will not be the good of the man. The supposed good, in 
many cases, may not be a real good, and may not con- 
tribute to enjoyment if secured. 

Aversion. Every desire has its opposite aversion. 
This aversion might be called a negative desire. Positive 

211 



212 DESIRE; THE WILL 

desire seeks to obtain something ; negative desire seeks 
to be rid of something, or to avoid something. We desire 
pleasure ; we desire to escape from pain. 

Appetites and Desires. The appetites previously 
considered may be termed physical desires, or desires of the 
body. We desire food, drink, comfortable clothing and 
shelter, rest when weary, opportunity for exercise when 
the nerve centers are full to overflowing with accumulated 
energy. The psychical desires may be called the appetites, 
or, by another name, the appetences of the soul. In some 
points the resemblance between the physical appetites and 
the psychical appetences is very marked, and affords con- 
venient ground for comparison. 

Unrest caused. The craving of desire causes unrest of 
soul. The intensity of the unrest will be in proportion 
to the intensity of the desire. The unrest is more or less 
painful in its nature. It is supposed that the object de- 
sired, if obtained, will satisfy the craving, remove the un- 
rest, and bring a feeling of positive pleasure. 

But it is not true that desire always seeks for that 
which men call pleasurable ; sometimes it craves that which 
causes care, anxiety, and pain. A man desires to labor, 
under conditions which are painful, to secure comfort for 
his family. A friend takes upon himself trouble and anx- 
iety for the sake of an unfortunate friend. A mother 
passes sleepless nights and wearisome days, caring for a 
sick child. In all these cases there is a strong desire to 
do and suffer, if need be. It may be urged that down be- 
low the care and anxiety, deep in the soul, there is a feel- 
ing of pleasure, but none the less there is real pain. It is 
evident that desire is not altogether egoistic ; it craves 



DESIRE EXCITED 213- 

for others as well as for self. It seeks to get, and to have, 
and to hold, but it also seeks to give, and to help ; in 
these aspects desire is altruistic. 

Desire excited. Previous experience is necessary in 
order that desire may be excited. The experience is not 
always of the particular object now presented ; it may be 
of some object with which this one can be compared. 
The feeling and craving of desire may be aroused either 
by presentation or by representation. The objects im- 
mediately before me, objects of sight or hearing, may 
kindle desire. In that case perception furnishes the nec- 
essary knowledge. But, as already stated, experience 
must have proved that these objects, or objects similar to 
these, have power to give pleasure and enjoyment. There 
IS, consequently, an act of memory producing represent- 
ative images of past impressions and their associated feel- 
ings of pleasure. A subordinate representative element 
is here mingled with the perception. In many cases the 
exciting cause of the activity of desire is a representation 
alone. This must be the fact when we desire things 
which are purely ideal, like approbation, wealth, power, 
or knowledge. We have some sort of mental represen- 
tation of the pleasures and advantages which the posses- 
sion of these will afford us. The exciting cause, in all 
such cases, must be the idea. The help of imagination is 
often invoked, and the representation becomes almost pure- 
ly ideal in form. Usually, perhaps always, the strength of 
the desire will be determined by the degree of pleasure 
or advantage anticipated from the object presented or 
represented. 

With children, and with many persons of mature age, 



214 DESIRE; THE WILL 

that which is near in place or time is much more effective 
in exciting desire than that which is remote. This has to 
be taken into account in the management of the young. 
A hoHday is a more real thing this week than a month 
hence or six months. A thing of cofnparatively little 
value, which can be seen and handled, will excite desire 
more surely than a thing of greater value merely de- 
scribed or pictured. 

Relations of Desire. In all cases desire is preceded 
by some feeling. This feeling may be a sensation, or an 
emotion, or a sentiment. The presentation or represen- 
tation of the object arouses some feeling, and this is fol- 
lowed by desire or aversion. The feeling, whatever it 
may be, is preceded by cognition. The desire is followed 
by volition, when there is a possibility of obtaining the 
object of desire. No volition follows if it is certain that 
the object cannot be obtained. The order of the psychical 
activities, therefore, is cognition, feeling, desire, volition. 
The relation of desire and volition will be further consid- 
ered in another connection. 

Some Specific Forms of Desire. Of the various forms 
of desire only a few can be named here. The desire, or 
as sometimes called, the love, of life is one of the most 
powerful of the desires. It seems instinctive in its man- 
ifestations, and acts sometimes almost like a blind and 
heedless impulse to preserve self regardless of everything 
else. However, the desire is susceptible of control, and of 
obedience to rational considerations. Men overmaster the 
desire and sacrifice life for their friends or their country. 
Occasionally circumstances so crush out the desire that 
men take their own lives ; probably, in most cases, suicide 



SPECIFIC FORMS OF DESIRE 21$ 

results from a morbid mental condition, in which judg- 
ment and reason are for the time unbalanced, and moral 
considerations are forgotten or unheeded. 

The Desire of Possession comes next to the desire of 
life in its power and influence in society and in human 
affairs generally. Its most common form is the wish to 
possess property. We call it acquisitiveness, in an ex- 
treme form avarice and irrational greed. This desire 
makes itself felt as soon as a child perceives external 
objects, and has strength to grasp and appropriate them. 
The desire continues as age advances, but its form of 
manifestation changes. It urges men to make homes for 
themselves and their families ; under its influence lands 
are purchased, trade is carried on, railroads and steamships 
are built, and commerce extended over the world. 

This desire demands the right of private ownership ; it 
is not satisfied with the possession of property in common 
with others, or with the community as a whole. 

It is possible that the welfare of society may require 
that the rights of private and personal acquisition and 
retention of some kinds of property be limited and re- 
stricted for the general good. It is, however, a matter of 
very great practical difficulty to determine the nature and 
extent of such limitations and restrictions. 

The Desire of Knowledge appears first as a native 
curiosity urging the child to ask questions and to pry 
into everything within his reach. The young child seeks 
to find out things from an almost irresistible impulse, just 
as he seeks to use his limbs and his vocal organs. The 
resulting enjoyment appears to spring, not only from the 
gratification of curiosity, but as much from the law of 



2l6 DESIRE; THE WILL 

pleasurable activity ; no regard is had, at this period, for 
the value or use of knowledge. 

With increasing years the power of mere curiosity 
diminishes, and a rational desire for knowledge takes its 
place. The pleasure resulting from the acquisition of 
knowledge is of a mingled character. There is pleasure 
in the mere exercise of the knowing activities, in per- 
ceiving, reproducing, imagining, judging, and reasoning. 
There is pleasure in the consciousness of having mastered 
difficulties, and also in the simple fact of possession. The 
value and use of knowledge serve to increase the pleas- 
ure. 

The Desire of Approbation and Esteem exhibits itself 
at a very early period of a child's life, and constitutes one 
of the strong motives of childhood. In riper years it still 
remains a motive, good or bad, according to the direction 
given to its power. A reasonable regard for the good 
opinion of others is certainly a proper feeling and seems 
necessary to the attainm.ent of the highest excellence of 
character. When such regard becomes undue and ex- 
cessive, it tends to destroy integrity and manliness. The 
practical problem is to determine how much influence 
this desire may be allowed to exert at particular times, 
and how much appeal should be made to it as a motive 
in dealing with the young. It is true, as one has said, 
" a young man is not far from ruin when he can say with- 
out blushing, ' I do not care what others think of me.' ** 

The Desire for Society and for social intercourse man- 
ifests itself very early, and seems almost an instinct. It 
is evident that it does not oric^inate in the natural tend- 
ency of the young to imitate the older, nor in consider- 



SOME COMPLEX FEELINGS 21/ 

ations of safety and other advantages. Later in life the 
gratification of this desire, undoubtedly, in many cases, 
takes its direction from the conclusions of judgment and 
reason in respect to personal interests and real or sup- 
posed utility. 

Some Complex Feelings. One of the complex feelings 
is hope. We hope for those things only which we be- 
lieve to be both desirable and attainable. The condition 
of mind called hope is made up of desire and expectation 
or anticipation. In any particular case hope is strong or 
weak according to the degree of expectation. When all 
ground for expectation crumbles away hope expires. 
Desire moves to action only when it is presupposed that 
the object of desire is attainable by efforts which we are 
capable of making, and by means within our control. 
Tentative efforts may be, and often are, put forth to 
ascertain the possibility of attainment, but these are 
merely preliminary to any deliberate and settled course 
of action. Despair is the negative of hope. In this state 
of mind there is intense desire, but no expectation, rather 
a full conviction that the object desired is beyond reach. 
The depth of the despair is usually in proportion to the 
intensity of the desire. Despair, also, arises from the 
anticipation of some great approaching evil from which 
we can discover no way of escape. 

In this case there is desire of escape and safety, but no 
expectation of averting the coming doom. 

Discouragement is an incipient form of despair result- 
ing from the discovery of unexpected obstacles, and from 
the weariness produced by protracted and fruitless effort. 
Encouragement is the opposite feeling and follows un- 



'2i8 DESIRE; THE WILL 

expected success or unlooked-for help and relief. Dis- 
couragement paralyzes one's powers, while encouragement 
redoubles their activity. 

There is, properly speaking, no single specific desire 
for pleasure or happiness. All desires have in view some 
good to self. This good may be the simplest form of 
personal gratification and enjoyment ; it may be the 
pleasure which arises from witnessing and ministering to 
the enjoyment of others ; it may be the satisfaction which 
comes into the soul from the consciousness of doing one's 
duty, of meeting one's obligations, of making the best of 
one's powers and opportunities, and of living in harmony 
with one's self, with one's neighbors, with all mankind, 
and with the Divine Being. Such satisfaction of soul is 
the substance of true happiness, which may be regarded 
as the end sought by all the highest rational desires. In- 
deed, happiness could not be made a distinct object of 
pursuit, since it consists in a state of soul consequent upon 
the highest and best activity of all the powers of both 
body and mind. This touches the moral aspect of the 
desires and their proper use as motives to action, and 
belongs with the study of ethics. 

Conflict of Desires. The egoistic and the altruistic in 
human nature cannot be easily adjusted so that no con- 
flict shall arise between them. I desire to do a kindness 
to a friend, to contribute something to his well-being and 
advantage. To do this will require self-denial on my 
part ; I must give up something which I value very 
highly ; forego some pleasure which I desire to enjoy, 
or sacrifice some advantage just within my grasp. My 
desire for the good of my friend and my desire for my 



AUTOMATIC MOVEMENTS 219 

own pleasure and interest thus come into conflict. One 
or the other must be suppressed, and this suppression 
causes discomfort and pain. 

The desire of ease comes into conflict with the desire 
to accomplish hard labor ; with the student the desire for 
recreation and amusement conflicts sometimes with the 
desire to excel in study. In general it is said that self- 
interest and duty come oftenest into serious conflict. It 
is of the highest importance in the development and 
training of the young to aid them, in all fitting ways, to 
give the mastery to the noblest desire. 

Relation of Desire and Volition. Desire and volition 
are so closely related that the study of the one naturally 
leads to the study of the other. Desire conditions voli- 
tion ; that IS, there would be no volition unless a preced- 
ing desire impelled. On the other hand, volition condi- 
tions desire ; that is, desire would fail to reach its object 
unless the will caused the necessary action of the physical 
organism. Consequently, in an important sense, the two 
psychical activities are correlative. 

Automatic Movements. Many movements of parts of 
the body are necessary before the child is sufficiently de- 
veloped to exercise the volitional activity or to bring his 
muscles under his control. Among these are the move- 
ments called automatic, and which are necessary to the 
continuance of life. The most essential of the automatic 
activities are the regular beating of the heart, respiration, 
and the processes of digestion and assimilation. These 
are automatic from the very beginning of life. 

Some other movements become nearly automatic by 
force of habit. It is only needful to start such move- 



220 DESIRE ; THE WILL 

ments by volition ; when once begun, they go on without 
conscious attention until the organs become fatigued, or 
the immediate purpose has been accomplished. Walking 
is one of these forms of activity. At first the process is 
full of difficulty and labor to the child, and requires a 
strong and constant effort of will. Gradually it becomes 
less and less difficult, until finally it seems to be performed 
automatically. The same is true of the movements of the 
hands and fingers in playing the piano and some other 
musical instruments, of the movements made in writ- 
ing, and of the movements made by artisans in their 
work. 

The complicated movements of the muscles concerned 
in the production of articulate sounds, either in speaking 
or singing, are still more wonderful in their character. 
After sufficient practice, the speaker, or singer, has only 
to think of the desired sound, or combination of sounds, 
and the muscles instantly make all the required move- 
ments. In these cases, not merely single movements, 
but whole series of movements, become nearly, if not 
quite, automatic. 

Random Movements. Many of the movements of the 
body, and especially of the arms and legs of the young 
child, are apparently random, and without aim or pur- 
pose. Automatic activities all have a definite purpose, 
while these have none. Consequently they cannot prop- 
erly be classed with the automatic. 

Reflex and Instinctive Movements. Some other 
bodily movements, automatic so far as any act of the 
will is concerned, are of a peculiar character, and are 
called sometimes reflex, and sometimes instinctive. They 



ANALYSIS OF AN ACT OF VOLITION 221 

are executed by *' an impulse acting prior to experience 
or instruction," and for this reason are called instinctive. 
They are made in response to some external provocation, 
excitement, or stimulus, without the intervention of the 
will, and for this reason are called reflex. These move- 
ments are seen in the sucking of the young child when the 
finger is placed between its lips, in swallowing when 
anything is placed upon its tongue, and in closing the 
fingers when the palm of the hand is touched. Winking 
when something is brought suddenly near the eye, dodg- 
ing to avoid a blow, ducking the head at the whistling 
sound of a bullet, are of this kind. These automatic and 
reflex movements prepare the way for the earliest volun- 
tary activities, which are probably imitations of some of 
the involuntary ones. 

Analysis of an Act of Volition. The complex activity 
of willing can be best made clear by analysis of the vari- 
ous elements which enter into it. 

(i) Some alternative must be presented to the mind; 
something proposed to be done or not done ; some object 
offered to be taken or rejected ; some representation of a 
course of conduct to be pursued or to be avoided. The 
various objects set before the mind are of a nature to ex- 
cite desires. The desires may be conflicting. There is a 
desire to do, and another not to do ; a desire to have, and 
another to reject. Liberty to choose and select is freely 
offered ; one desire can be yielded to, or another, as the 
mind shall determine. 

(2) Evidently the next step is to examine, to delib- 
erate, to weigh the reasons upon one side, and upon the 
other. Without an opportunity to do this, there can be 



222 DESIRE; THE WILL 

no intelligent choice. In this deliberation, perception is 
employed, if the object presented appeals to the senses. 
If the object is of a different kind, it is represented, and 
the image-making power of the imagination is set at 
work. Either by presentation or by representation, the ob- 
ject, or purpose, or course of life, is held before the mind 
until it has been thoroughly analyzed. Judgment places 
one consideration over against another ; one advantage 
beside another ; one pleasure opposite another ; com- 
pares one with another, and finally utters its decision. 
Reason comes in with its inferences, and its conclusions 
as to results in the far future, as to the ultimate influence 
of this and that upon the conduct of life. Moral consid- 
erations and questions present themselves ; the right or 
wrong of this proposed act, of this pursuit in life, of this 
principle of conduct, is carefully balanced in the scales of 
justice and righteousness. All these, and more, come be- 
fore the mental vision, and have to do with the final 
determination. In some cases, much time may be required 
for the examination and decision. 

(3) After this examination and comparison of the ob- 
jects presented, this estimating of the advantages to be 
derived from the possession of one object or of another, 
this balancing of the pleasure which one course of con- 
duct will probably afford with the pleasure which another 
course may give, a feeling of preference for one object or 
one course arises in the soul. Choice follows ; the con- 
flict of desires and interests comes to an end. One alter- 
native is selected, the other rejected. 

(4) The series of complex psychical processes is now 
concludedby the final act of volition ; the determination to 



INHIBITION 223 

do or not to do, to possess or to cast away, to pursue 
one course of conduct rather than its opposite. 

The mental act of willing is not fully completed until 
the activities necessary to carry out the determination are 
put in motion. If the action required is purely mental, 
the psychical machinery must be set at work. There must 
be a beginning of perception, representation, memory, 
imagination, judgment, or reasoning. If the action de- 
manded requires physical movements, the muscular appa- 
ratus must be stirred to activity by the discharge of nerv- 
ous energy. The action needed to execute the mandate 
of the will must be mentally represented before the move- 
ments commence. Otherwise time is lost and vital en- 
ergy wasted. 

Consciousness reveals the fact that all final acts of voli- 
tion are preceded by desire. When choice has been made 
desire springs up and urges determination, volition. For 
this reason desire is sometimes regarded as the universal 
motive. In one aspect this is true, but in our common 
modes of speech those things which appeal to the mind 
in such a way as to excite desire are called motives. 

Inhibition. The power of the will is exerted to re- 
strain action, to prevent movement, as often as to produce 
action and movement. The determination to act in one 
way involves inhibition of all contrary forms of action. 
Temporary inhibition is frequently necessary to give time 
for examination and deliberation. This prevents hasty 
and unadvised action and saves one from 'Moing and 
thinking afterwards." 

This inhibitory power is very weak in the child ; he usu- 
ally acts from the first impulse. The prohibition of the 



224 DESIRE ; THE WILL 

child comes from without rather than from within. He 
must often be saved from the consequences of impulsive 
acts by the friendly intervention of his elders, even if this 
intervention involves something of physical restraint. 

Freedom of the Will. With the vexatious controver- 
sies concerning the power of motives and the freedom of 
the will we have no occasion to concern ourselves. In 
regard to volition two doctrines have been advocated 
with great zeal and energy. One doctrine is that of lib- 
erty ; which in substances teaches that the will is sover- 
eign, is free ; that we have the power of self-determi- 
nation ; that we can resist one desire and yield ourselves 
to the influence of another without regard to what is 
called '*the strongest motive." 

The other doctrine is that of necessity, or as some mod- 
ern writers prefer to name it,' determination. The advo- 
cates of this doctrine do not, in so many words, deny the 
freedom of the will ; according to their teaching the will 
is free to act according to its nature, but its nature is to 
yield to desire, to be determined by desire. Desire con- 
trols the will, not will desire. What seem to be volun- 
tary acts are not really such ; these acts follow certain 
mental causes as necessarily as effects in the material 
world follow their causes. It is clear enough that freedom* 
of this sort is not freedom in any proper sense of the 
term. 

Testimony of Consciousness. The most satisfactory 
evidence of freedom in volition is the testimony of con- 
sciousness. When we have chosen a particular course of 
conduct and determ^ined to pursue it, zve feel that we could 
have chosen differently^ a7id could have adopted a different 



FREEDOM OF THE WILL 22$ 

line of conduct. We are conscious of no irresistible com- 
pulsion in our acts of willing, A few writers, while ad- 
mitting that such is the testimony of consciousness, affirm 
that consciousness testifies falsely ; that it is not a trust- 
worthy witness. It is a sufficient reply to this to say that 
if consciousness testifies falsely and cheats us, we have no 
means of finding out the deception ; consciousness is ul- 
timate so far as mental states and acts are concerned ; there 
is no authority to which an appeal can be made. We ac- 
cept, and must accept, its testimony. In consequence of 
this sense of freedom we feel responsible for our determi- 
nations and our conduct. We are subject to feelings of 
self-reproach, self-condemnation, and even remorse, to 
which we could not be subject if we acted from necessity. 

These Feelings Universal. So far as our knowledge 
extends, our associates and all men share in these feelings. 
All rules and laws for the regulation of human conduct 
in the family, in society, in the school, and in the State, 
are based upon the conviction that men generally can 
choose their modes of conduct, can do or refrain from 
doing according to their own pleasure. 

Essence of Freedom of Volition. It is affirmed by 
those who deny the liberty of self-determination that we 
always act, and must act, in the direction of what is called 
the *' strongest motive;" that ^^the preponderance of 
motives " in all cases determines our action. This may be 
admitted without hesitation, since, in substance, it is only 
another way of saying that the motive or desire which 
prevails at any time is, for the moment, the strongest, the 
fact of preponderance being the sole criterion by which 
its relative strength is estimated. The inference is that 
15 



226 DESIRE ; THE WILL 

since the will is thus influenced it cannot be free in its 
choice ; in other words it cannot choose otherwise than it 
does choose. 

The fallacy here is the tacit assumption that the will 
has no power in determining the ** strongest motive/' or 
the ^^ preponderance of motives/* The essence of the free- 
dom of volition cojtsists in the power zve have to give pre- 
ponderance to 7notives, or to make any selected desire or 
motive strongest for the time. This preponderance is se- 
cured by giving fixed and earnest attention to the selected 
desire. Dr. Carpenter says, "' Reflection on our mental 
experiences will satisfy us that these variations in the rel- 
ative strength of motives mainly arise from the' degree 
of attention that we give to each respectively. An ex- 
cited feeling which would soon die out if left to itself, 
will retain its potency, or even gain augmented force, if 
we allow ourselves to brood over it/' If we turn from it, 
and refuse to harbor it, it has little power over us, and 
presently disappears. The will, consequently, determines 
what motive shall be the strongest, and shall prevail, by 
giving direction to attention. 

Heredity and Environment. It will be readily admitted 
by every one familiar with actual life that the power to 
exercise freedom in volition is very different in different 
individuals. This difference results partly from original 
constitution of mind, and partly from the influence of 
environment and educational training. There has been a 
tendency to attribute too much to heredity, but without 
doubt inherited characteristics form an important factor 
in human development. In animals, habits are sometimes 
transformed into instincts ; something of a similar nature 



HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 22/ 

occurs in the human race. Special peculiarities of both 
body and mind are transmitted from parents to children 
frequently through several generations. These peculiar- 
ities have in most cases, undoubtedly, been acquired by 
force of habit, sometimes physical and sometimes psy- 
chical. The disposition or tendency thus created reappears 
in the child. When these dispositions are of an elevating 
character they are of great service to the fortunate in- 
heritor, bringing to his aid in the ** struggle of life " the 
effective force accumulated during many previous years 
through the good habits of a virtuous ancestry. When 
these tendencies are degrading they become an '* inherit- 
ance of woe," congenital fetters and clogs, impeding every 
step and making effort doubly wearisome and exhaust- 
ing, and rendering the attainment of high excellence a 
matter of much difficulty. 

Environment is probably more influential than heredity 
in determining character. Those born and reared amid 
unwholesome and vile surroundings, where all the forces 
of social life tend downward, where example is ^' evil and 
only evil and that continually " will find themselves put 
at great disadvantage in the race of life. Volition in the 
direction of right will be exceedingly difficult for persons 
thus situated. But, except in a few extreme cases, the 
power of self-determination has not been completely de- 
stroyed. Congenital tendencies can be resisted, over- 
come, and partially, at least, eradicated from both the 
physical and psychical constitution. Environment, in 
many cases, can be changed either by personal effort or 
by the help of others. The freedom of volition still 
remains, although its exercise is made difficult. It is 



228 DESIRE ; THE WILL 

probable, however, that in some few cases the will power 
is destroyed. 
Formation of Habit ; Training of the Will. In the 

training of the young, effort should be made to secure the 
formation of the habit of resisting evil tendencies and 
desires, and of following the impulses of the good. 
While strength of will can be secured only by leaving a 
child to struggle for himself against the bad and towards 
the good, yet such assistance may be given as to insure 
victory for the right, true, and pure. Every act of resist- 
ance against the impulse of an unworthy desire of any 
kind renders the next act of resistance easier ; the 
struggle is less fierce and less protracted. The boy who 
mastered the impulse of anger yesterday, will to-day con- 
quer the impulse with less effort and to-morrow with still 
less effort. The child who yields once to the solicita- 
tions of duty and conscience, will yield more readily and 
more cheerfully when the same solicitations are again felt. 
By virtue of this law of habit certain desires and motives 
finally become permanent and dominant dispositions of 
mind, and are recognized as elements of character. The 
'^ education of the will '' consists essentially in the proc- 
esses by which this condition of mind is secured. 

Dr. Moreirs Testimony. Dr. Morell writes: *^ The 
education of the will is really of far greater importance, 
as shaping the destiny of the individual, than that of the 
intellect ; and it should never be lost sight of by the 
practical educator, that it is only by the amassing and 
consolidating of our volitional residua in certain given 
directions, that this end can be secured. Theory and 
doctrine, and inculcation of laws and propositions, will 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 229 

never of themselves lead to the uniform habit of right 
action. It is by doing that we learn to do ; by overcom- 
ing, that we learn to overcome ; by obeying reason and con- 
science, that we learn to obey ; and every right act which we 
cause to spring out of pure principles, whether by authority, 
precept, or example, will have a greater weight in the 
formation of character than all the theory in the world.'* 
The object of the true teacher, in will-training, is to lead 
the child, when grown to maturity, to act voluntarily and 
habitually from the impulses of the highest and noblest 
desires. 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. What desire is ; desire defined ; aversion. 

2. Appetites and desires ; appentences. 

3. Unrest caused ; desire not always egoistic. 

4. Desire excited ; presentation ; representation. 

5. The near and the remote. 

6. Relation of desire to feeling ; to volition. 

7. Some specific forms of desire : desire of life ; of possession ; of 

knowledge ; of approbation ; of society. 

8. Some complex feelings : hope ; despair ; discouragement. 

9. No specific desire for happiness ; how happiness is secured. 

10. Conflict of desires ; effect of this conflict. 

11. The will ; relation of desire and volition. 

12. Automatic movements ; movements made nearly automatic. 

13. Random movements. 

14. Reflex and instinctive movements. 

15. Analysis of an act of volition : (a) An alternative presented ; 

(b) examination and deliberation ; (c) preference, choice ; 
(d) final act of volition ; (e) appropriate action must 
follow. 



230 DESIRE; THE WILL 

i6. Inhibition ; examples. 

17. Freedom of the will ; two doctrines. 

18. Testimony of consciousness ; this feeling universal. 

19. Essence of the freedom of the will. 

20. Heredity and environment. 

21. Formation of ha])it. 

22. Testimony of Dr. Morell ; work of the teacher. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW. 

What the Moral Nature is. It is not the intention 
to enter into any scientific or abstruse discussion of the 
subject of the moral nature, or of moral- law, or of the 
general subject of ethics. For our purpose, it will be 
sufficient to say that the moral nature in man is that 
which renders him responsible for his conduct and char- 
acter. 

The elements which make up such a nature may be re- 
duced, in substance, to two. First, capacity or ability to 
acquire knowledge of right and wrong, and, second, free- 
dom of choice, that is, freedom to choose either the 
right or the wrong. 

The Same Nature. The moral nature is not, then, 
another and different nature from that which we have 
been studying, with the exception of a single element, 
which will be considered further on. // may be defi7ied as 
the mind knowmg^ feelings and willing^ concerning matters 
of right and wrong, of worthiness and unworthiness, of 
obligation and duty. It is the mind inquiring as to rea- 
sons for bestowing praise or blame, for speaking of merit 
and demerit, for believing in such distinctions as good and 
bad in character and conduct. 

Idea of Right and Wrong. We find ourselves in pos- 

231 



232 THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW 

session of an idea of right and wrong. We cannot prob- 
ably recall a time when we did not have this idea 
with some degree of distinctness. We are unable to de- 
termine with certainty whence or how we first obtained 
it, or from what source it came. We observe that all our 
friends and neighbors have the same idea, and all the 
people with whom we have ever associated. All the 
tribes and races of men of whom we have read or heard, 
appear to possess this idea with varying degrees of clear- 
ness. It is said that in all languages, ancient and modern, 
terms are found to express a radical distinction between 
right and wrong. This distinction exists everywhere to- 
day, and has existed as far back as history or tradition 
can be traced. It seems to be universal. 

This general notion of right and wrong must^ however^ 
be carefully distinguished from the belief that certain 
specific characters and actions are rights and certain others 
are wrong. Concerning t lie particular things regarded as 
right or wrong, differences of opinion will be discovered 
even in the same community. The reasons for such dif- 
ferences zvill be co7tsidered in another place. It is 07tly 
affirmed here that all men recognize the idea of moral 
goodness and moral badness, and that they all believe some 
things morally right, and some others morally wrong. 

Source of this Idea ; Moral Intuition. How came 
men in all ages and everywhere to have this idea ? From 
what source did it come, or in what way did it originate? 
Different answers are made to these questions. It may 
not matter much practically whether we suppose it to 
have been inherited, or to have been given us by an 
original power of the mind. I believe it to be one of the 



MORAL JUDGMENT 233 

intuitive ideas, or intuitions, of the soul, a product of in- 
tuition. This is the same psychical activity which gives 
us all other intuitive ideas. But on account of the pecul- 
iar nature of this idea, the power may be called moral 
intuition, if it be kept in mind that the term moral is em- 
ployed simply for convenience to designate the particular 
direction in which the activity is exerted. This intuition 
may be regarded as the first element in the moral nature. 

Moral Judgment. In addition to this primary notion 
of a right and a wrong, history teaches that men in all 
ages have been in substantial agreement concerning the 
moral nature of some actions w^hose characteristics are 
very strongly marked, and readily discovered. As to 
these, men are still in practical agreement. Murder, rob- 
bery, unprovoked personal violence, stealing, lying, and 
other similar acts, have always been, and are now, con- 
demned as wrong, without argument or discussion. 
They have never been approved or defended, except 
under peculiar conditions and for reasons which were 
obvious. Inferences drawn from what may be said and 
done in a state of war, or in a condition of mutual hatred 
into which men can, without doubt, be educated, have here 
no relevancy. At such times the ordinary laws of judg- 
ment and behavior are evidently overborne and held in 
abeyance by excited passions and brute violence. 

On the other hand it has, in all periods, been regarded 
right and praiseworthy to protect and defend the weak, 
to provide for the needy, to relieve those in distress, to 
deal honestly in business, to observe the requirements of 
justice and mercy, to speak the truth, and to live a life of 
purity and self-restraint. 



234 THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW 

Something in all human souls, whatever the external 
conduct may be, appears to discover in these and kindred 
acts an element of moral right, as in deeds of an opposite 
character it discovers the quality of moral wrong. This 
something may be called moral perception, that is, the 
ability of the mind to perceive the moral qualities of many 
of the most simple human actions, with very little in- 
struction and guidance. This activity may be considered 
as only the incipient and slowly developing moral judg- 
ment. It approaches the character of an intuitive percep- 
tion and judgment. 

In respect to all complicated questions of right and 
wrongs of obligation and duty^ we proceed to make inquiries 
and to seek information just as we do in relation to all 
other matters. We do not expect to receive unerring direc- 
tion from some inward monitor without the use of our or- 
dinary mental powers. We seek to learn what ought and 
what ought not to be done or said in precisely the way 
in which we set about learning other thijtgs. If a certain 
course of conduct, or a particular manner of life, is urged 
upon us, we inquire concerning the influence which will 
be exerted by it and the consequences which will follow 
its adoption. If in doubt we ask the opinions and advice 
of those who are, as we believe, better qualified than our- 
selves to decide wisely and correctly as to the right or 
wrong of the proposed conduct or manner of life. Hav- 
ing thus sought and obtained all possible inforrnation, we 
come to conclusions and make decisions as to right and 
duty by employing the same powders and exercising the 
same activities of mind which we employ in reaching con- 
clusions and making decisions about matters of bus- 



CONSCIENCE ^3S 

iness, or about questions of history, or literature, or in 
science, or art, where no moral considerations are in- 
volved. 

The process is one of examination, comparison, and de- 
cision. These are functions of the judgment. The ac- 
tivity is here, as in the case of intuition, exerted in a special 
direction, and, for this reason, the power may be called 
the moral judgment. The term moral merely indicates 
the peculiar province in which the action takes place, 
and not any peculiarity of the activity itself. 

In this field, and when deciding ethical questions, the 
judgment is limited by the same conditions and is obedi- 
ent to the same laws as in any other field, or when examin- 
ing problems of any other nature. It decides according 
to the knowledge possessed, and according to the accept- 
ed moral standard. It is no more infallible here than else- 
where, and frequently makes faulty decisions. 

Conscience. Whenever a decision of the judgment has 
been rendered^we are conscious of so7ne activity or impulse 
of mind which insists that this decision shall be respected 
and obeyed. This inner power demands that, in all cases 
and under all circumstances^ we shall do what the m.oral 
judgment declares to be rights and shall refrain from doing 
what it pronounces wrong. It forbids all evasion, or com- 
promise, and is satisfied with nothing short of direct and 
unqualified submission to its requirements. This power is 
conscience. 

Nature of Conscience. Conscience is the supreme and 
only peculiar psychical activity of the so-called moral na- 
ture. It is, according to this analysis, an executive and 
not a judicial activity of mind. It leaves the judgment 



236 THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW 

to decide all questions of right, obligation, and duty, and 
concerns itself only to have these decisions recognized 
and carried into full effect. As thus defined, conscience 
itself can make no mistakes, and is always to be obeyed. 
This is only another way of saying that a man should at 
all times and under all conditions do that which he be- 
lieves, after the most patient, thorough, and honest exam- 
ination, to be right ; and should abstain from doing 
that which he believes to be wrong, or concerning which 
he has any serious doubts. 

Use of the Term Conscience. The term conscience is 
frequently used to desig7iate the entire moral nature, and 
more frequently to doiote the moral judgment, and the 
moral executive power of the mind. While such usage can 
plead good authority, it nevertheless causes much unneces- 
sary perplexity and con f vision in t lie minds of the young. 
Referring to such perplexity and confusion, Janet, in 
his Theory of Morals, says : '' It seems to me easy 
enough to solve this difficulty. The judgment pro- 
nounced by the conscience in each particular case is, in 
reality, composed of two judgments : (i) Such an action 
is your duty ; (2) Perform this action because it is your 
duty. Now, in the first of these judgments the conscience 
may be mistaken ; for it may happen that a certain action 
which I believe to be my duty, is not my duty. But it is 
not mistaken in the second ; for, if it is certain that any 
given action is my duty, I ought to perform it. If, then, 
it be agreed that the name of conscience shall be applied 
only to the second of the judgments, to the act by which I 
declare that, a certain action being my duty, I ought to 
perform it, it is clear that such a judgment is never erro- 



MORAL FEELINGS 237 

neous/' There can be no doubt of the advantage of thus 
limiting the use of the term conscience. 

Moral Feelings. The moral nature embraces the feel- 
ings as well as the positive activities. The feelings are 
those already described in the study of the sensibilities, 
with some slight modifications caused by the influence of 
the ideas of right, obligation, and duty. The earliest feel- 
ings of the child, related in any way to conduct, appear 
to be those of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The 
simple and almost instinctive feelings of satisfaction and 
dissatisfaction naturally and easily change, as the mind 
matures, into the stronger and more definite feelings of 
approbation and disapprobation. These feelings are 
directed both toward one's self and toward others. In 
the young child they are mingled with the emotions of 
satisfaction or dissatisfaction which are experienced when 
he receives the approval or disapproval of the mother or 
other attendants, and have very little reference to moral 
considerations. Gradually these feelings become more 
closely related to states of mind and to conduct, and the 
child begins consciously to approve or disapprove of him- 
self. Later the feelings become clearly defined ; and the 
pursuit of a course of conduct which the judgment fully 
approves is attended and followed by an agreeable feel- 
ing, more or less intense and lasting according to the 
measure of self-denial involved, or the amount of resolu- 
tion and effort required. This is a feeling of approba- 
tion. A careful analysis of one's own states of mind will 
make it evident that this feeling is directed rather toward 
the motives by which actions are supposed to be prompted 
than toward the acts themselves. The soul refuses to 



238 THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW 

approve itself or others for deeds, however good in them- 
selves, that are done for impure or selfish reasons. 

Feelings of Obligation and Duty. All mature and 
sane minds are conscious of feeling that some things 
ought to be done and some other things ought not to be 
done. That which we ought to do we call duty, and the 
feeling that we ought to do this we call the feeling of 
obligation or duty. 

How early a child begins to experience this state of 
mind it is impossible to determine with absolute certainty. 
At first the feeling is very feeble and not clearly defined. 
It must be preceded by a knowledge of relations and 
consequent obligations. The strength of the feeling in- 
creases slowly, but with greatly varying degrees of rapid- 
ity. Its development and growth are much helped or 
hindered by early education and by surrounding con- 
ditions. 

All Affections and Desires have in them a moral ele- 
ment. They spring from either a good or a bad state of 
mind. They constitute that which we call the heart as 
distinguished from the intellect. They are the impell- 
ing forces which produce right or wrong in human 
character and conduct. Affection kindles desire ; desire 
moves the will ; and the will stirs up the internal activi- 
ties of the soul and the external activities of the body. 
It puts the whole man to doing good or evil. It is the 
center of human character. 

The moral nature, as here described, may be said to in- 
clude all the activities of mind which have any relation to 
right, obligation, and duty. 



JUDGMENT GUIDED BY LAW 239 

Synopsis of Moral Activities, 

I. Intuition. 

2. ^Judgment (with moral perception). 

3. Conscience. 

4. Feelings of various kinds. 

Judgment Guided by Law. In rendering its decisions 
as to the right or wrong of himan character and conduct y 
the moral judgment must be guided by the provisions of 
some laWy made by some competent authority for the direc- 
tion of human conduct. This law is the standard of right 
conduct in cases where questions of right and wrong are 
involved, just as the laws of the State constitute a stand- 
ard of right conduct for its citizens. To be right is to 
be in harmony with the requirements of the law ; to be 
wrong is to be out of harmony with these requirements. 
Right, therefore, as the term is here used, is simply con- 
formity to law. 

The moral judgment performs the same duties in the 
court of conscience that the civil judge does in the courts 
of the State. It ascertains and applies the law '' for such 
cases made and provided.'' It does not make the law 
any more than a judicial officer makes the law which he 
administers. It finds a law already '' made and provided.'' 
This law is usually called "' the moral law " ; and it is the 
generally accepted standard by which human conduct is 
to be regulated, and according to which such conduct is 
judged. By this law the judgment is guided in all its 
determinations. 

When, therefore, my judgment declares some act of 
mine to be morally right or morally wrong, the decision 



240 THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW 

must be based upon the result of a comparison of this act 
with the provisions of the moral law prescribing what sort 
of an act I ought to do under the given conditions. 
The conduct has been laid alongside the law, and has been 
measured and estimated by the requirements of the law. 
If it satisfies these requisitions it is pronounced right ; if 
it fails to satisfy them it is affirmed to be wrong. An 
appeal to consciousness will enable us to determine 
whether such processes of comparison and determination 
go on within our own minds. 

Thoughts, Feelings, etc.. Right or Wrong. Upon 
careful examination of the activities and states of our 
minds we discover that we approve or disapprove, pro- 
nounce right or wrong, not only our conduct, but also our 
thoughts, feelings, purposes, and intentions. We perceive 
an intimate connection between external acts and internal 
thoughts and feelings. ' The one seems to be the natural 
product of the other. We observe even that we often 
approve or condemn an action on account of the charac- 
ter of the thought or feeling which appears to have given 
birth to it. The act is declared good or bad according to 
the nature of the end for the accomplishment of which 
it was performed. 

Action of Legal Tribunals. Upon inquiry we learn 
that even legal tribunals, in seeking to reach conclusions 
as to the innocence or guilt of persons charged with 
criminal conduct, go beyond the acts themselves and take 
into consideration the real or probable intentions with 
which the acts were committed. If it can be satisfactorily 
shown that, in a given case, good was intended, though 
harm was really done, the legal character of the act is 



CHARACTER AND SCOPE OF MORAL LAW 24I 

very essentially modified in the eyes of the administrators 
of the law. In such a case the moral character of the act 
may be entirely changed, although, in a purely legal 
aspect, it still remains a violation of the letter of the law, 
and renders the doer liable to a legal penalty. 

Parents, teachers, and others in charge of children are 
influenced by the same considerations in judging of the 
conduct of those under their care. They allow the ap- 
parent and probable intentions of a child to have much 
weight in determining the merit or demerit of particular 
acts as well as of general courses of behavior. 

Character and Scope of Moral Law. These illustra- 
tions and examples help us to discover the general 
nature and scope of moral law. Like other laws it has 
reference to ends to be attained. Civil law aims to make 
good citizens and thus secure the highest good of the 
State. Moral law aims to make men and women morally 
good and thus secure the highest good of mankind. It 
requires such a state of mind and such external conduct 
as will result in the greatest good to the individual, and 
consequently in the greatest good to the race as a whole. 
It seems abundantly evident by our references to con- 
sciousness, and to legal tribunals, and to the conduct of 
men generally, that moral law is everywhere recognized, 
and is everywhere regarded as of binding force. 

Reference wall be made further on to the reasons for 
minor differences of interpretation and application of the 
law. 

Origin or Source of Moral Law. Moral law may be 
said to consist, in substance, of certain fundaine7ital prin- 
ciples ; from these funda7nental principles specific regula- 
i6 



242 THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW 

tio7is or rules for human conduct^ i?i the various relations 
of life, have bee7i derived. What is the origin of these 
fundamental principles? or from what source have they 
been derived ? To these questions three replies have been 
made, or all the replies made may be reduced to these 
three. 

(i) The Utilitarian Theory. In substance this theory 
affirms that these basic principles are formulated 
conclusions, or definite statements, derived from the 
teachings of the experience of the race during the past 
ages. The physical and mental constitutions, the in- 
stincts, wants, and tendencies of men show that they were 
designed to live together. They are capable of sustain- 
ing various relations to one another, some of these very 
intimate and productive of much happiness or of great 
misery according to the conduct of the parties to the rela- 
tions. It appears evident that the intercourse between 
men is intended to be productive of good both to individ- 
uals and to the whole body. Experience has proved 
that this result can be secured only when the con- 
duct, the manner of living and behaving, is of a 
certain kind. It has been discovered that some 
things must be done and others must not be done in 
order that life may be even tolerable, and that domestic 
and social relations may be maintained. It has been 
found absolutely necessary that people should tell the 
truth, should be honest and upright in business and other 
transactions, should respect the property, the persons, the 
reputations, and the interests of others ; that they should 
not commit theft, robbery, murder, nor do violence or 
injustice to any one. It has been discovered that it is of 



ORIGIN OR SOURCE OF MORAL LAW 24$ 

the highest importance in the domestic relations that 
parents care properly for their children, feeding, clothing, 
protecting, and educating them ; and that in turn children 
be obedient and respectful to their parents and to other 
older persons. These and many other things of similar 
nature, having been found by long experience and much 
observation to be essential to the good order, the comfort, 
convenience, and happiness of mankind, came to be consid- 
ered and called right, and things of an opposite character 
came to be regarded and called wrong. Statements were 
finally formulated, embodying these ideas and conclu- 
sions, and these were called general or fundamental prin- 
ciples of moral law and of right conduct. Gradually 
these came to be accepted as axiomatic truths, and to be 
considered as imperatively binding upon all men. De- 
ductions and inferences from these constitute the specific 
rules for the regulation of conduct in all the various and 
complicated relations of life. 

(2) Revelation from God. Another reply to our in- 
quiry is that these general and fundamental principles of 
morals are expressions of the wnll of God, revealed in 
His Word, and perhaps by other means, to mankind ; 
that they are to be received and obeyed as a revelation of 
divine truth. This statement of the origin of moral law 
is accepted by many as the briefest and most satisfactory 
that can be given. The intelligent believer in God and in 
revelation does not believe these principles to be truths 
simply because they are revealed. He believes they are 
revealed because they are truths. He accepts them as 
truths, not simply because he believes God has spoken 
them ; but he believes God has spoken them because they 



244 THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW 

are true. They are true, as mathematical and other 
axioms are true, because the contrary is inconceivable as 
the mind and the moral nature are constituted. 

(3) Intuitions of the Soul. A third answer is, in 
substance, that the fundamental principles of right are in- 
tuitive truths, are intuitions of the soul. These princi- 
ples constitute the deep foundation upon which the whole 
superstructure of theoretical and practical morality is 
built. The mind rests upon these as upon an immovable 
rock. They occupy the same position in the system of 
moral government that the constitution occupies in 
our system of civil government. From them are de- 
duced and inferred all needed specific rules for human 
conduct. 

Some of these Principles. // is not easy to embody 
these principles in words. They are better conceived than 
expressed. Like other intuitive truths, they are known, in 
their coinpleteness, only in consciousness. The writer of the 
'' Declaration of Independence " made an effort to state 
some fragments of them when he affirmed, "We hold 
these truths to be self-evident : that all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with cer- 
tain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, 
and the pursuit of happiness." 

The existence of intuitive or self-evident truths, relating 
to the rights and duties of men, is here recognized and 
affirmed. The primary truth here expressed is that of 
justice ; that to every man should be given that which is 
his due. The Roman declared it to be *'the unchanging 
everlasting will to give each man his right." 

These fundamental principles of morality include (i) 



PRINCIPLES AND RULES OF MORAL LAW 245 

the principle oi Justice, to render to every man his rights, 
or those things which he can justly claim ; (2) the princi- 
ple of Beneficence^ to do good to all men, especially to 
those in need, as we are able and have opportunity ; and 
(3) the principle of Mercy and Forgiveness, to do to the 
erring and to those who have wronged us, as we would that 
they, under like circumstances, should do unto us. It is 
difficult to conceive of any objections which can be urged 
against these principles. They are taught by revelation ; 
they are approved by the judgment of all good men ; and 
they are in harmony with the teachings of experience. 
Those who reject revelation and intuition must be glad to 
accept them on the ground of utility, if for no higher 
reason. 

Practical Rules deduced. From these principles 
practical rules may readily be deduced for the regulation 
of the conduct of children in the home, in the school, and 
in all other places ; for the conduct of parents toward 
their children ; of all members of a family toward each 
other ; for the conduct of friends and neighbors ; for the 
conduct of employers and those employed ; of citizens, 
of public officers, and finally, of men in all possible con- 
ditions and relations. 

Some differences of opinion and of practice will be found 
even among good men, in respect to the interpretation 
and application of laws of conduct ; these differences, 
however, usually relate to matters of minor importance, 
and affect none of the essentials of private or public 
morality. The influence of early education is observable 
in the views of men upon most matters of everyday life, 
and especially upon the moral nature of many customs 



246 THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW 

and habits of society, such as modes of recreation and 
amusement. 

Instruction can be given. Avoiding unessential mat- 
ters and taking into account the influence of early educa- 
tion and environment, the teacher will encounter no 
serious obstacles in giving instruction in the fundamental 
principles of morals and in their important applications. 
He may safely insist upon obedience to rightful author- 
ity in the family, in the school, and in the State. Such 
obedience may be enforced by the sanctions of revela- 
tion, of the *' common sense " of mankind, and of utility 
in the best sense of the word. 

The duties of truthfulness, honesty, integrity, and 
purity of thought, of feeling, and of speech, may be en- 
forced by the same sanctions. Regard for the rights of 
others, in respect to liberty, reputation, property, and 
" the pursuit of happiness " can also be taught. All these 
are included in the great law of justice. 

Duties imposed by the laws of beneficence and of 
mercy and forgiveness can be illustrated and insisted upon 
without danger of giving just cause of offense to even the 
most sensitive natures. Benevolence, charity, kindness, 
pity, compassion, and other modes of manifesting good 
will are approved by revelation and by the judgment of 
all men. 

An Explanation — Uses of Term ^^ Right.'' A single 
point may require a word of explanation to prevent con- 
fusion of ideas, and consequent confusion in instruction. 
Right has been defined as conformity to law and rule. 
Another use of ^^ right " and '' rights " must be distin- 
guished from this. Rights are claims made in accord- 



TRAINING THE MORAL NATURE 247 

ance with laws of nature, of society, or of the State, to 
possession, use, and enjoyment of things. So we speak 
of natural rights, social rights, civil and political rights. 
In this sense it is said men have a right to life and liberty. 
Whatever things another may justly claim from me are 
his by right ; his claim is made in harmony with some 
law. Some rights are determined by the law of justice ; 
others by the law of beneficence, and still others by the 
law of mercy and forgiveness. 

Training the Moral Nature. The moral powers, like 
all the other powers, grow in strength by appropriate 
exercise. The moral judgment especially should be put 
to proper use at as early a period as possible in the life of 
a child. But it should be called into exercise upon sub- 
jects appropriate to childhood. It cannot be expected 
that an immature judgment will be able to make decisions 
of value upon matters of high importance. Early moral 
instruction should consist in the presentation of examples 
of right conduct, of the performance of duty, of the rec- 
ognition of obligations, of kindness, love, truthfulness, 
and good will, such as a child can understand and appre- 
ciate. The teaching of mere formal rules of conduct is 
of little value : the child should construct the necessary 
rules from the examples presented for his consideration. 
The moral instruction should be full of the warm person- 
ality of the teacher, and should not consist of cold abstrac- 
tions. It is only when it is permeated with real enthusiasm 
and genuine interest that it so touches the soul of the 
child as to exert power to fashion his life and character. 

The nature of the instruction and training should change 
as the pupil advances to maturity, and is prepared to 



248 THE MORAL NATURE AND MORAL LAW 

exercise his judgment upon the more difficult problems 
of life. Such problems should be presented at proper 
times, and under fitting conditions. 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. What the moral nature is. 

2. The same nature we have studied. 

3. Idea of right and wrong. 

4. The notion of right a general one. 

5. Source of this idea ; moral intuiton. 

6. Moral judgment and perception. 

7. Things regarded wrong ; and right. 

8. Conscience ; its nature and office. 

9. Common use of the word conscience. 

10. Moral feelings. 

11. Feelings of obligation and duty. 

12. Synopsis of moral activities. 

13. Moral law, etc. 

14. Judgment guided by law. 

15. Thoughts, feelings, etc., right or wrong. 

16. Action of legal tribunals. 

17. Character and scope of moral law. 

18. Origin or source of moral law. 

19. The utilitarian theory. 

20. Revelation from God. ^ 

21. Intuitions of the soul. , 

22. Some of the fundamental principles of moral law. 

23. Declaration of Independence. 

24. Principle of justice ; of beneficence ; of mercy and forgiveness. 

25. Practical rules deduced. 

26. Influence of early education. 

27. Instruction can be given. 

28. Uses of the terms right and rights. 

29. Training the moral nature. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

INSTINCT ; HABIT. 

Relations of Instinct. Automatic, random, and re- 
flex activities and movements have been considered else- 
where. These movements are all produced by impulses 
acting v^ithout the inter\?ention of volition, and, except 
in a few possible cases of reflex action, without conscious 
intellectual activity. Instinctive movements are closely 
related to random and reflex movements in a few points, 
but differ widely from these in other particulars. Instinc- 
tive activity, like the random and reflex activities, has its 
origin in an impulse acting without the intervention of 
reason or volition ; it agrees also with these in manifest- 
ing its power at a very early period in the life of an 
animal or of a child. Like reflex activity, it is subject to 
the influence of stimuli, and acts in obedience to their 
solicitations or power, though not in direct reply to 
them. 

It differs from the random impulse in being largely 
psychical while that is altogether physical. It differs still 
more in that its activity is directed to a definite end, an 
end which, in some cases, it is reasonable to believe, is 
represented in the consciousness of the actors. It is 
difficult to suppose that the bird begins to build a nest 
without some notion of the object she is going to con- 
struct, or that the bee makes its honeycomb with no idea 

249 



250 INSTINCT ; HABIT 

of the form or character of the comb. The majority of 
writers, however, take a different view, and affirm that 
the animal works bUndly, having no notion of the ultimate 
result. 

Instinctive acts differ from reflex ones in several im- 
portant points. The reflex act is an answering back in 
kind, as far as this is possible. The instinctive act, in 
some sense an answer to the stimulus, is not an answer 
in kind. It does not strike blow for blow. The instinc- 
tive activity is much more complex than the reflex, and 
the end sought may be comparatively remote. The end 
of nest-building is the rearing of young birds and the 
preservation of the species, but weeks or months must 
elapse before the end is reached. Probably some organic 
feeling awakens the nest-building instinct in the bird, the 
dam-building instinct in the beaver, and the hibernating 
instinct in the bear, but the acts following have no recip- 
rocal relation to the stimulating feeling, and the ends 
are not secured immediately. 

Some Opinions. The variety of opinions upon the sub- 
ject of instinct, expressed by different writers of ap- 
parently equal intelligence, is matter of surprise, and 
forces one to rely upon his own observations and judg- 
ment to a considerable extent. It is not the part of 
modesty to be over-positive in one's conclusions. A few 
quotations will be of interest. Goethe is quoted by Ladd 
as saying, *VThere is in the curious and kindly operations 
of instincts something which, whoever studies and does 
not believe in God, will not be aided by Moses and the 
Prophets. In these instincts I perceive what I call the 
omnipresence of the Deity, who has everywhere spread 



DEFINITIONS OF INSTINCT 25 1 

and implanted a portion of his endless love, and has inti- 
mated, even in the brute, as a germ, those qualities which 
blossom to perfection in the noblest forms of men.'* This 
is poetical and metaphysical, rather than scientific and 
psychological. Ladd defines as follows : ^^ Instincts are 
such impulsive activities as belong to all the members of 
a class, and thus exhibit themselves, either at particular 
periods or uniformly, in the development of the indi- 
vidual as a member of the species, or in the propagation 
and preservation of the species.'' 

Romanes writes : '' Instinct is reflex action into which 
there is imported the element of consciousness. The 
term is therefore a generic one, comprising all these facul- 
ties of mind which are concerned in conscious and adaptive 
action, antecedent to individual experience, without neces- 
sary knowledge of the relation between means employed 
and ends attained, but similarly performed under similar 
and frequently recurring circumstances by all the indi- 
viduals of the same species." 

Dr. Chadbourne says : '* An instinct is simply an im- 
pulse to a particular kind of voluntary action which the 
being needs to perform as an individual or representative 
of a species, but which he could not possibly learn to 
perform before he needs to act." 

Paley's definition is familiar : '' Instinct is a propensity 
prior to experience and independent of instruction." 
This would apply equally well to random and reflex 
impulses. One writer says, ^* The instinct of the present 
generations is the product of accumulated experiences of 
past generations. Instinct is inherited memory." This 
may be accepted as true of some special forms of in- 



252 INSTINCT; HABIT 

stinctive activity, but it fails entirely to account for the 
original instinctive impulse. 

Definition. For brevity we adopt the following : 
Instinct is an impulse to activity^ directed to definite ends, 
and to the performance of acts necessary before experience 
or instruction is possible. The definition of Dr. Chad- 
bourne is also satisfactory. It must be understood that 
the impulse is common to all the individuals of the 
species, and is not peculiar to any one member of it. 

Adaptation. In animals, the physical structure and 
organization are adapted to the peculiar instinctive activ- 
ities. Examples of this adaptation are very abundant. 
The wings of the bird render flight possible ; the spin- 
nerets of the spider are fitted to web-making ; the pecul- 
iar structure of the mole adapts him to burrowing. 
Similar adaptation is found in the formation of insects, 
and in their habits. Among mammals, equally obvious 
adaptations manifest themselves, especially in the earliest 
period of life. 

Difference between Instinct and Reason. It is im- 
possible to draw a sharp, clear line between the mani- 
festations of instinct and those of reason or intelligence. 
Probably instinct passes by slow degrees into reason, and 
in some actions the two are combined. The broad and 
general distinction between instinct and reason is, that 
reason adapts means to ends consciously and purposely. 
Reason also modifies means according to conditions, and 
learns by experience and observation ; this involves de- 
liberation, and often tentative movements. 

In instinctive actions there is an adaptation of means 
to ends, but not by conscious purpose. There is no de- 



OFFICES OF INSTINCT 253 

liberation, so far as appears. Instinct admits of some 
modifications in its modes of action to meet new and 
unusual conditions, but such modifications are of minor 
importance. 

Morgan says, '^ Intelligence and instinct are antithet- 
ical; the former can never pass into the latter or take any 
share in its evolution.'' In another connection, however, 
he writes, **The influence of intelligence upon instinct 
may be twofold, it may aid in making or unmaking 
instincts. Instincts may be modified through intelligent 
adaptation. A little dose of judgment, as Huber phrased 
it, often comes into play/' 

A few authors contend that imitation is an important 
factor in the development of instincts, and that imitation 
has very much to do with keeping the nests of birds of 
uniform pattern. It is affirmed also that the song of birds 
is imitative, to a considerable extent at least. Hon. D. 
Barrington says, ** I have educated nestling linnets under 
the three best singing larks — the skylark, woodlark, and 
titlark — every one of which, instead of the linnet's song, 
adhered entirely to that of their respective instructors." 
The imitative impulse undoubtedly has large influence 
in developing the habits and instincts of domestic animals, 
so that original instincts disappear or are greatly modi- 
fied. 

Offices of Instinct. The province of instinct is (i) to 
provide for the life and safety of the individual, and (2) 
to provide for the preservation and perpetuation of the 
species or the race, under conditions in which the teach- 
ings of experience, of observation, and of intelligence, as 
that term is commonly employed, can afford no guidance 



254 INSTINCT; HABIT 

or cannot be had. It is said ^^ to fit the animal to the 
world ; to enable him to battle for existence, to hold his 
place in spite of opposing forces and enemies — in 
fact, to make the forces and products of nature his serv- 
ants, so far as they are needful for his perfection. It se- 
cures this by putting him at once, by a spontaneous man- 
ifestation of impulse, knowledge, and skill, into the need- 
ful relations to those objects in nature that are necessary 
for his individual welfare or that of the species. It does 
this in many cases with almost the certainty of the oper- 
ations of the laws of inorganic nature.'* 

Limitations of Instinct. Instinct, like ordinary reflex 
action, is limited by the presence or absence of stimuli. 
These stimuli, as previously indicated, are either external, 
appealing to the senses, or internal, arising from organic 
or functional excitements and irritations. Birds are im- 
pelled by such internal stimuli to mate ; to build nests, to 
lay eggs, and to rear their young at the right season of 
the year. The salmon goes from the ocean to the river 
to spawn. Migratory birds feel the impulse to migrate 
at the proper time ; the squirrel gathers and stores his 
nuts ; the hibernating animals retire to their holes and 
dens, impelled when the impulsion is needed. Other an- 
imals show evidence of the same subjection of the in- 
stinctive impulse to periodic direction and control. The 
impulse to care for the young usually continues only so 
long as care is needed. The animal mother, who yester- 
day watched and guarded her young and fought fiercely 
to defend them from harm, to-day drives them angrily 
and violently from her. This change of conduct is seen 
in the hen, the cat, and in other domestic animals, and is 



INSTINCT APPEARS EARLY 255 

without doubt produced by a change of some sort in the 
bodily functions. In one condition of the body the in- 
stinctive force impels the animal to one sort of behavior ; 
in a different bodily condition, to an opposite kind of con- 
duct. These are illustrations of the power of internal 
stimuli in giving direction to instinctive actions. 

The influence of external stimuli, appealing to some 
one or more of the senses, is equally obvious. It is some- 
times said that instinct is cheated in its dependence 
upon the direction of the senses ; the truth is the senses 
are deceived and not the instinct. The hen, for example, 
gives the note of alarm and the chickens hasten to hide 
for safety when the boy imitates the cry of the hawk. 
The sense of hearing gives a false report, but instinct acts 
truly. The sight of the duck, not her instinct, is cheated 
by the decoy of the sportsman. The dog eats poi- 
soned meat because neither smell nor taste warns him of 
the danger. Instinct does not correct the errors of the 
senses and, through their mistakes, leads one animal to 
fly from imaginary danger and another to rush to certain 
death. 

Instinct appears Early. Experiments have been made 
upon chickens just hatched to discover how early the 
impulse of instinct prompts to action. Mr. Spalding 
writes, ''A chicken that had been made the subject of 
experiments on hearing, having been blindfolded at birth, 
was unhooded when nearly three days old. For six min- 
utes it sat chirping and looking about it ; at the end 
of that time it followed with its head and eyes the move- 
ments of a fly twelve inches distant ; at ten minutes it 
made a pick at its own toes, and the next instant it made 



2 $6 INSTINCT; HABIT 

a vigorous dart at the fly, which had come within reach 
of its neck, and seized and swallowed it at the first 
stroke.'* Another chick, kept several days entirely apart 
from any hen, was then placed within sight and call of 
a hen with a brood of its own age. After a little delay it 
started for the hen, passing over and around obstacles 
purposely placed in its way, and reached the mother in a 
very short time. This was the first time it had ever walk- 
ed by sight. Other experiments prove that chickens pick 
at insects within a few moments after leaving the shell, 
and run immediately at call of the hen. There can be no 
doubt that in many birds and in some mammals the in- 
stinctive activities appear with the appearance of life 
itself. 

Modifications of Instinct. Like the other psychical 
activities, instincts are subject, within certain limits, to 
the universal law of exercise. Forms of instinct con- 
stantly used are strengthened, and rendered more acute 
and serviceable ; forms disused become weaker, and prob- 
ably after a long time disappear. The instincts of domes- 
ticated animals are greatly modified. Peculiar manifesta- 
tions of instinct, at first apparently accidental, may be 
made permanent and cultivated to a high degree of per- 
fection. All dogs probably had a common origin and a 
common manifestation of instinct. By selection and care 
in breeding, varieties have been produced with perma- 
nently differing characteristics of form, color, size, and 
also of instinctive impulses. If new instincts have not 
been developed, a common one has been most wonder- 
fully modified, and the modifications have been trans- 
mitted by the general law of heredity, as the peculiarities 



INSTINCT IN MAN 257 

of form, ear, hair, limb, and color have been. The spaniel 
instinctively takes to the water; the shepherd dog to the 
care of sheep; young '* pointers'* and *' retrievers '* do 
their peculiar work, when first taken out by the sports- 
man, nearly as perfectly as after long practice. No one 
of these varieties shows any disposition or aptitude for 
the work of another variety. 

Instinct in Man. A wide diversity of opinion exists 
in relation to instincts in the human race. Professor 
James says, ** they are far indeed from being few in num- 
ber in man,** are indeed more numerous than in animals. 
Professor Preyer, on the other hand, thinks they are few 
in number, and difficult to recognize after early youth is 
past. Morgan thinks it is chiefly a matter of the defini- 
tion given to instinct, and in this he is probably correct. 
Many impulses seem to be partly instinctive and partly 
rational ; these will be counted as instinctive or rational 
according to the judgment or preference of the writer. 
In many cases the instinctive and rational impulses be- 
come so mingled that it is scarcely possible to determine 
which predominate. The affection of the mother for her 
child is undoubtedly instinctive in its origin, but it be- 
comes subject to rational considerations ; the same is true 
of the love of a father for his family and of the patriot for 
his country and his countrymen. 

The most obvious instinctive impulses in the young 
child are those necessary for the preservation of life, such 
as sucking and swallowing; these have also something of 
a reflex character. Among other acts which evidently 
have something of the instinctive impulse behind them 
are the movements necessary to creeping, standing, jump- 
17 



2S8 INSTINCT ; HABIT 

ing, walking, and running ; hanging by the hands has 
recently been added to this list. 

Instinctive Expressive Acts. Many acts expressive 
of emotion and of some other feelings are clearly instinc- 
tive, as they are performed before the possibility of imita- 
tion or instruction. Among these are crying and scream- 
ing from vexation and pain ; the movements producing 
sounds indicative of comfort and satisfaction, and the 
earliest movements of the muscles of the face in smiling ; 
movements of the head to denote assent and refusal, hold- 
ing out the hands to receive and pushing with the hands 
to indicate aversion ; and turning away the head and hid- 
ing the face through fear. 

Instinctive Fear. The child exhibits the emotion of 
fear before he can possibly have learned any occasion for 
fear from experience. He clings to the mother at sight 
of strangers, trembles at the approach of some animals, and 
shows extreme terror at strange and unexpected sounds. 

Professor James treats of fear, as a typical instinctive 
feeling, at considerable length, and states pretty fully the 
objects and conditions which excite this emotion. Audi- 
tory impressions seem to be more productive of fear than 
visual ones. Strange men and strange animals excite fear, 
especially if approaching in a threatening way. Some 
children cry at the first sight of a cat or a dog. Black 
things, dark places, holes, caverns, etc., usually arouse 
fear. Many children who have never listened to ghost 
stories are afraid if brought into a dark place. Children 
are sometimes treated unjustly and cruelly on this ac- 
count, the assumption being that they can easily control 
their fear. 



KNOWLEDGE OF INSTINCTS NECESSARY 259 

Instinctive and unreasoning fear is exhibited by some 
animals ; and, strange to say, the horse shows such fear in 
an unusual degree. A writer says : '' I think I am right 
in saying that the horse is the only animal which, under the 
influence of fear, loses the possession of every other sense 
in one mad and mastering desire to run. With its entire 
mental Hfe thus overwhelmed by the flood of a single emo- 
tion, the horse not only loses, as other animals lose, ' pres- 
ence of mind,' or a due balance among the distinctively 
intellectual faculties, but even the avenues of special sense 
become stopped, so that the wholly demented animal may 
run headlong and at a terrific speed against a stone wall. 
There is no animal except the horse whose whole psychol- 
ogy is thus liable to be completely dominated by a single 
emotion.*' 

Knowledge of Instincts Necessary. No man can 
know himself or thoroughly understand other men, who 
has neglected to become acquainted with the instinctive 
impulses of his nature. In the realm of feeling these im- 
pulses afford a basis for much valuable instruction and 
practical training in respect to character and conduct. 
Proper appeals to children find an answering response in 
the prompting of these instinctive feelings, and they may 
be made of great service in the department of ^^ morals 
and manners." It is impossible to deal wisely, or even 
justly, with young children without a knowledge of in- 
stincts as manifested in childhood, and without taking 
into account their power over the conduct during that 
period. Punishments are sometimes inflicted for acts 
purely or mainly instinctive. The fear of the '^ dark,'* or 
of dark places, exhibited by children, has already been 



26o INSTINCT ; HABIT 

touched upon. This fear, although often caused by unwise 
treatment, is, in many cases, undoubtedly instinctive in its 
origin, or at least is an unfortunate legacy of heredity. 

Stupidity of Instinct. Examples of cases in which in- 
stinct seems to approach very nearly to that reasoning in- 
telligence which consciously and purposely adapts means 
to ends are frequently related. The stupidity or limitation 
of instinct is not so often referred to. An illustration of 
such limitation of intelligence, borrowed from Sir John 
Lubbuck, may be of interest. The example relates to the 
conduct of bees. A small part of the covering of a cell, 
which a bee was closing up after filling it wath honey and 
depositing within it an egg, was broken away. This dam- 
age the bee immediately repaired, as she did some breaks 
in the walls of half-finished cells. When, however, a hole 
was made in a cell below the part where the bee was work- 
ing, and through which the honey at once began to exude, 
the bee worked on as if nothing had happened, though 
the honey ran out as fast as it was poured in. This experi- 
ment was repeated over and over again, and always with the 
same result. As it was thought possible the bee might 
not have noticed these small holes, a larger hole was made 
in the bottom of a cell which contained only a little 
honey. The bee soon returned with more honey, seemed 
surprised to find the hole in the cell, examined it carefully, 
and even pushed her antennae through it. She did not, 
however, as might have been expected, stop up the hole, 
but went on calmly to pour into the cell load after load of 
honey, which ran out of the bottom as fast as she poured it 
in at the top. When she had brought the usual quantity 
of honey, she laid her egg and sealed up the empty cell. 



ORIGIN OF HABIT 261 

Habit* It is a fact of common experience that, if we have 
once performed any act, either physical or mental, each 
successive repetition demands less effort and less atten- 
tion. The second performance is easier than the first ; 
the third easier than the second, and so on, until 
finally very little effort or attention is necessary. The 
very familiarity of this fact blinds us to its wonderful 
character. We say we do a thing easily and readily be- 
cause ** we have got used to it," without stopping to ask 
ourselves what it is '^ to get used to " a thing. Evidently 
some change must have taken place somewhere in our 
muscles, nerves, or brain, else why should the muscles and 
nerves move with so much more rapidity, with so much 
less expenditure of energy, and at the same time with so 
much more of precision and efificiency? It may not be 
possible to discover the exact nature of the change, but 
of its reality there is no room for doubt. 

A Tendency or Disposition remains. After an act 
has been performed several times there remains, in the or- 
ganism, a disposition, or tendency, or inclination, to re- 
peat the performance whenever it is suggested. As al- 
ready stated, without doubt some change has taken place 
in the nerves and muscles concerned in producing the 
movements of the parts of the body involved in the action. 
This change is purely physiological, and the resulting con- 
dition of body has a tendency to become permanent. 
'* Getting used to a thing" consists in the production of 
this change of the physical organism. It is probable 
that some psychical modifications are involved in the crea- 
tion of this disposition, but of their nature, apart from 
physical modifications, we have no knowledge. 



262 INSTINCT ; HABIT 

Disposition not Desire. This disposition or tendency 
should not be confounded with desire. Desire may act 
in harmony with it and in the same direction, or it may 
act in opposition to it and in a contrary direction. For 
example, a person has contracted the habit of using intox- 
icating liquor or morphine ; that is, a disposition has been 
created which impels him to use it. He earnestly desires 
to be freed from the power of the evil habit. A severe 
struggle takes place between this artificially formed dis- 
position and genuine desire. A child has formed the 
habit of disobedience ; by and by, convinced of the wrong 
of this habit, he really desires to be obedient. In spite 
of the desire, the disposition will continue to urge him to 
the old course of conduct. The personal experiences of 
most of us will suggest an over-abundance of similar illus- 
trations. 

Influence of Association. The power and effectiveness 
of this tendency are greatly increased by the influence of 
association. This is, however, only a special example of 
the operation of a general law considered in the study of 
memory. Places, persons, articles of furniture, etc., are 
usually associated with habitual acts. The sight of these 
excites the activity of the disposition, and often seems to 
cause the performance of an act without the intervention 
of the will, and without any distinct consciousness of the 
fact that effort has been put forth. The person who 
wishes to break off certain habits will find it absolutely 
necessary to avoid the places and individuals with whom 
the habit has become associated, however much confi- 
dence he may have in his power of resistance. 

Definition of Habit. Habit is a disposition or tendency ^ 



HABITS IN THE BODY 263 

either of body or of mind, created by the repetition of acts and 
states. The aggregate of such dispositions in an individ- 
ual constitutes his habits. Habit and custom are nearly 
related, but are not the same. Habit is properly the in- 
ternal disposition ; custom the external act often repeated. 
Customs lead to habits, and habits perpetuate customs. 
Old and useless customs are kept up by the power of 
habit. 

Habits a Necessity. The formation of habits is a ne- 
cessity of nature. The tendency to such formation is ex- 
hibited very strongly even in early infancy. At this 
period habits are fixed easily and rapidly from the fact 
that the physical organism is exceedingly impressible and 
plastic, and yields at once and without resistance to the 
changes demanded by any mode of activity. Mental 
habits are induced with equal facility. The training proc- 
esses of education have for their end the creation of right 
mental habits, as well as physical ones, and through these 
the production of practical skill. Man has been well 
called ^'a bundle of habits,** and personal experience 
testifies to the truth of the adage. 

Habits in the Body. Physiologically the creation of 
habits consists essentially in tJie formation of new path- 
ways in the brain and in the subordinate nerve centers, 
and along the nerves themselves, and in re7idering these 
paths smooth and easy for the passage of nervous exci- 
tations or currents. The excitations w^ill naturally take 
the road which offers the least resistance, and the more 
the path is used the better it becomes for practical pur- 
poses. The effect of the formation of physical habits is 
of the highest importance in the affairs of everyday life. 



264 INSTINCT; HABIT 

It saves the expenditure of nervous and muscular energy, 
and the mental effort of attention. It makes it possible 
to turn over the commonplace drudgery of life to the lower 
nerve centers while the brain engages in higher work. If 
it were not for this, progress would be impossible. Dr. 
Mandsley says, '' If an act were no easier after being 
done several times, a man might be occupied all day in 
dressing and undressing himself ; the attitude of his body 
would absorb all his attention and energy ; the washing of 
his hands or the fastening of a button would be as difificult 
to him on each occasion as to the child on its first trial ; 
and he would, furthermore, be completely exhausted by 
his exertions." 

By the law of habit all such acts become nearly auto- 
matic and thus opportunity is given for acquisition and 
advancement in the higher departments of human ac- 
tivity.- 

Habits of Feeling and Conduct. The domain of habit 
extends beyond the physical and purely intellectual ac- 
tivities of man ; it embraces the feelings and the general 
conduct. Habits of right feeling and right living are of 
higher importance to the individual and to the commu- 
nity than even good habits of body and of intellectual 
labor. Any mode of feeling, indulged and cherished, 
grows deeper and stronger, and soon exhibits a '' dispo- 
sition " to recur without apparent cause. At first the 
feeling may have been excited by particular persons, 
places, or circumstances, and may be associated with 
these so that it is aroused only at sight or remembrance 
of them. Soon, however, it recurs without reference to 
persons or conditions, and tends to assume the character 



HABITS OF FEELING AND CONDUCT 265 

of an habitual tone and temper of mind. Children in this 
way, through unwise indulgence on the part of parents 
and others, become permanently peevish, fretful, irritable, 
and ill-tempered at a very early period. Others, by wiser 
though apparently more severe and less affectionate reg- 
imen, are trained to habitual cheerfulness, amiability, 
and good temper. Currents of feeling, like currents of 
thought and currents of nerve excitation, wear for them- 
selves channels in which they continue ever after to flow 
with constantly increasing rapidity and force. As a nat- 
ural result of this acquired tendency of mind, men, what- 
ever their original disposition may have been, become, by 
degrees and often altogether unconsciously, gloomy, mo- 
rose, and even '^ bearish," thus depriving themselves and 
their immediate associates of all possibility of making life 
comfortable and desirable. By the same law of habit, per- 
sons whose native temperaments and dispositions may have 
been unfortunate, can train themselves to habitual cheer- 
fulness, hopefulness, and kindness of feeling by regular 
and persistent effort. 

In moral education habit is of the utmost importance. 
The training to right conduct of necessity commences 
before instruction^ since the child commences to act while 
he is yet ignorant of the moral nature of conduct^ and 
incapable of understanding and appreciating appeals to 
judgment or reason. His earliest habits, consequently, 
are involuntary and involve no responsibility on his own 
part ; nevertheless the beginnings of moral conduct and 
character are found in these. By this process obedience, 
self-control, truthfulness, and other virtues of childhood 
become habitual. The power of habit continues to be 



266 INSTINCT ; HABIT 

felt even in mature life, and not seldom serves as a strong 
bulwark against the onsets of temptation when other de- 
fenses have given way. 

Habit sometimes an Evil. The force of habit, if 
wrongly employed and badly directed, like any other 
beneficent power, may become a most serious obstacle to 
right development and progress. It is a work of more 
difficulty to unlearn an old habit than to learn a new one. 
A double labor is imposed, therefore, by the formation of 
bad habits in childhood and youth. 

It is true, also, that habits, not objectionable morally, 
are sometimes in the way of intellectual advancement. 
'' Taken in a narrow sense, habit is in a manner opposed 
to growth. By following out a train of ideas again and 
again in a certain way, we lose the capability of varying 
this order, of re-adapting the combination to new circum- 
stances." The danger from this element in habit needs 
to be guarded against by students and by teachers who 
expect to keep fully up with the progress of events, with 
the improvements in the arts and sciences, and with the 
changing methods of study and instruction. 

Rousseau, probably having in mind this possible evil, 
wrote, as translated by Dr. Payne : " The only habit 
which a child should be allowed to form is to contract no 
habit whatever." It is sufficient to say that it is impos- 
sible to prevent the formation of habits. 

Formation of New Habits. A few suggestions on the 
voluntary formation of habits may be of value. The 
substance of these may be found in several writers. 

I. In breaking off an old habit or in the creation of 
a new one, begin with all possible energy and determina- 



FORMATION OF NEW HABITS 267 

tion. Accumulate beforehand a large amount of reserved 
force in the form of engagements, conditions, and asso- 
ciations which will aid in breaking the old and creating 
the new habit. Calmly and resolutely determine to be 
successful. 

2. Be perfectly uniform in the performance of acts 
until the new habit is thoroughly fixed, or, as Mr. Bain 
puts it, '' Never suffer an exception to occur till the new 
habit is securely rooted in your life." There is no such 
thing as *^ tapering off" in destroying an old bad habit; 
the work must be done at a single blow, and that must 
end it. 

Professor Bain says, ** The peculiarity of the moral 
habits, contradistinguishing them from the intellectual ac- 
quisitions, is the presence of two hostile powers, one to be 
gradually raised into the ascendant over the other. It is 
necessary, above all things, in such a situation, never to 
lose a battle. Every gain on the wrong side undoes the 
effect of many conquests on the right. The essential 
precaution, therefore, is so to regulate the two opposing 
powers that the one may have a series of uninterrupted 
successes, until repetition has fortified it to such a degree 
as to enable it to cope with the opposition under any 
circumstances." 

3. Act promptly upon every resolution you make as to 
conduct ; or '^ Seize the very first possible opportunity to 
act on every resolution you make, and on every emo- 
tional prompting you may experience in the direction of 
the habits you aspire to gain." A final suggestion may 
be put in this form : '' Keep the faculty of effort alive 
in you by a little gratuitous exercise every day." 



268 INSTINCT; HABIT. 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Relations of instinct. 

2. How instinctive activity differs from random impulses ; from 

reflex acts. 

3. Opinions of Goethe, Ladd, Romanes, Chadbourne. 

4. Definitions. 

5. Difference between instinct and reason. 

6. Offices of instinct. 

7. Limitations of instinct. 

8. Instinct appears early. 

9. Modifications of instinct. 

10. Instinct in man ; various opinions. 

11. Instinctive expressive acts. 

12. Instinctive fear ; Prof. James ; in animals. 

13. Knowledge of instincts necessary. 

14. Stupidity of instinct. 

15. Habit; fact of experience. 

16. A tendency or disposition. 

17. Disposition not desire. 

18. Influence of association. 

19. Definition of habit. 

20. Habits a necessity of nature. 

21. Habits of body ; advantages. 

22. Habits of feeling and conduct. 

23. Habits sometimes an evil. 

24. Formation of new habits. 



CHAPTER XV. 

SLEEP, DREAMING, SOMNAMBULISM, HYPNOTISM. 

Sleep is a necessity of nature. Shakespeare makes 
Macbeth say, 

*' The innocent sleep, 
Sleep that knits up the ravell'd sleave of care 
The death of each day's life, sore labor's bath, 
Balm of hurt minds, great nature's second course, 
Chief nourisher in life's feast. " . 

During our waking hours the nervous energy becomes 
exhausted, the muscles become fatigued, and the whole 
physical organism becomes wearied. Waste of material 
has taken place. This waste of nervous and muscular 
tissue is repaired during sleep, and the body is restored 
to its normal condition. Sleep is of every degree, from 
the light slumber which a breath may disturb, to that 
profound sleep from which waking is difificult. The state 
of profound sleep is one in which there is a complete 
suspension of sensorial activity. In lighter sleep some of 
the senses may be partially awake and active to a limited 
extent. 

During sleep the flow of blood to the brain is consider- 
ably diminished ; whether this is the cause or the effect of 
sleep is not satisfactorily determined. Some of the pre- 
disposing and obvious causes of sleep are (i) physical ex- 

269 



2/0 SLEEP, DREAMING, SOMNAMBULISM, HYPNOTISM 

haustion, (2) darkness and silence, (3) any monotonous 
repetition, (4) expectation. 

The number of hours of sleep required by different in- 
dividuals varies, but the average is from seven to eight. 
Attempts are sometimes made to reduce the time given 
to sleep, but no real and permanent advantage can be 
secured by this. The apparent temporary gain will be 
more than offset by the ultimate loss of physical and 
mental energy. 

Waking. A person who is accustomed to sleep where 
regular movements are taking place, will usually awake 
at once if the movements cease. One who falls asleep 
while listening to a discourse or to reading, will arouse 
himself if the speaking or reading stops. 

Persons who have accustomed themselves to attend to 
certain sense impressions, will generally be awakened 
whenever these impressions occur, even though appar- 
ently sleeping soundly. The physician starts up at the 
first sound of his night-bell ; the weary mother at the 
first and slightest moan from her sick child ; the signal 
oflficer at the whispering of the word ^' signal.'* A few 
persons have the power of determining, when they retire, 
at what hour they will awake, and they awake at the time 
fixed. No satisfactory explanation has yet been given 
for these facts. 

Dreaming. Mental acts and states taking place during 
sleep are called dreams. The question whether the mind 
is always active or whether, in profound sleep, it rests with 
the physical organism, cannot be answered positively. 

Hamilton's Opinion. Sir William Hamilton believed 



MENTAL ACTIVITY IN SLEEP 2/1 

"that the mind is never wholly inactive, and that we are 
never wholly unconscious of its activity/* He affirms 
that we always dream, whether we remember our dreams 
or not. He quotes Kant as maintaining " that we always 
dream when asleep ; that to cease to dream would be to 
cease to live/* Many other eminent men have taught 
the same doctrine. Locke took an opposite view, and 
argued that we do not always dream, and that the mind 
is not always active. Some other writers have adopted 
the same view. Modern writers, however, are practically 
unanimous in the opinion that the mind never rests, but 
is always in a condition of greater or less activity. Its 
activity during sleep differs from its activity in waking 
hours in several particulars. 

Points of Difference, (i) The activity is frequently, 
but not always, less vigorous. 

(2) The representative power is usually predominant, 
but its creations are often incongruous and absurd. 

(3) The higher activities of judgment and reason are 
generally in abeyance. The will appears to have very 
little directive power. 

(4) The mental action is frequently very rapid, but little 
or no account is taken of time. A dream of a few mo- 
ments seems to occupy days or months. 

(5) The moral powers are usually entirely inactive. 
Things are said and done in dreams from which we should 
turn away in horror when awake. Miss Cobbe says, " We 
commit in dreams acts for which we should weep tears of 
blood if they were real, and yet never feel the slightest 
remorse. ... A woman whose life was devoted to the 
instruction of pauper children, seeing one of them make 



2/2 SLEEP, DREAMING, SOMNAMBULISM, HYPNOTISM. 

a face at her, doubled him up in the smallest compass, 
and poked him through the bars of the lion's cage." 

(6) The memory retains only a small proportion of our 
dreams, especially of those which occur during sound 
sleep. It is true, however, that we remember only a 
comparatively small part of what we see and hear in our 
waking hours. 

Causes of Dreams, (i) In many cases the dream is a 
continuation of the mental activity which was going on 
just before we fell asleep. Such dreams and their causes 
are readily recognized. In most cases dreams of this kind 
occur when sleep is not very profound. 

(2) Many dreams are caused by impressions made 
upon senses which are only partially asleep. Dr. Reid, 
^* having had his head blistered on account of a fall, and 
a plaster having been put on it, which pained him ex- 
cessively during the night, on falling asleep towards morn- 
ing, dreamed very distinctly that he had fallen into 
the hands of a party of Indians and was scalped." A man 
sleeping with a bottle of hot water at his feet dreamed 
of walking over hot ashes. 

(3) Some dreams result from conditions of the body, 
such as indigestion, or strong nervous excitement, or 
organic sensations caused by disease. 

(4) Doubtless many dreams which appear strange, and 
are perhaps declared to be altogether inexplicable, are 
caused by the recalling, while sleeping, of material which 
has been stored away in the unconscious, or subcon- 
scious, regions of the soul. We frequently dream of things 
which took place long ago and have not been thought 
of for years. The mental activity, rambling about without 



CAUSES OF DREAMS ^73 

volitional direction, comes upon these and brings them 
into our sleeping consciousness. Thus in dreams we 
see places, and persons, and events which while awake 
we have been unable to recall. The '' subconscious " 
chambers of the soul have not yet been fully explored 
and examined. *' Many curious instances are on rec- 
ord, in which particulars that the memory has been 
repeatedly and vainly called on to retrace during the 
waking state, have presented themselves in dreams with 
great vividness ; and thus lost documents have been re- 
covered, and explanations have been furnished of per- 
plexing difficulties.'* 

Dr. Abercrombie relates, in his Intellectual Philos- 
ophy, several dreams which illustrate this remarkable 
power of memory in sleep. In one case a gentleman 
was in danger of losing a considerable amount of prop- 
erty on account of his inability to produce certain legal 
documents which he felt sure were, or should be, among 
papers which his father had left him. After careful and 
protracted search he failed to find them, and had come 
to the conclusion that the best thing for him was to 
make a compromise. He went to bed with the purpose 
of going to Edinburgh the next day to arrange the 
matter. During the night he dreamed that his father, 
who had been dead many years, appeared to him, and 
after some conversation, in which he explained some 
peculiar circumstances of the business, went on to say, 
** The papers relating to the transaction are in the hands 
of Mr. , a writer who is now retired from profes- 
sional business, and resides at Inveresk, near Edinburgh.'' 

In the morning the gentleman went to the place, found 
i8 



2/4 SLEEP, DREAMING, SOMNAMBULISM, HYPNOTISM 

the person named by his father, now a very old man, 
stated why he visited him, and obtained from him the 
missing papers. Probably years before the father had 
told his son of the papers, but the matter had apparently 
been entirely forgotten. The dream memory did what 
the waking memory had been utterly unable to do. 
Many dreams of a similar character have been recorded, 
and they are all accounted for in the same way. 

(5) There remain a few dreams the causes of which 
are not satisfactorily explained by any of the suppositions 
hitherto made. Probably if the laws of psychical 
activity were fully understood these might also be 
accounted for by the natural action of such laws. 

Ancient Beliefs. The generally accepted doctrine 
among the ancient nations, including the Hebrews, was 
that many dreams were caused by influences and agencies 
outside the dreamer^s own mind. Some dreams had their 
origin in the influence of the Divine Being; and others in 
the influence of spiritual agents of some sort. 

The believer in spiritual powders and forces will not 
feel inclined to deny that, in the early periods of human 
history, in the comparative childhood of the race, many 
dreams and visions of the night may have had this origin. 
The higher development of humanity and the progress of 
science have led to the general rejection of this theory. 
Some traces of it, however, still linger in many minds, 
and occasionally come to the surface, when some ex- 
traordinary dream is reported or experienced. It is 
usually safe to discredit the accounts of such dreams. 

Dr. Taylor's Statements. Dr. Taylor, in his work on 
Primitive Culture, states that among some tribes there is 



SOMNAMBULISM 2^5 

a belief that a shadowy soul goes out from the body 
during sleep and wanders about at will. What this 
soul sees, and hears, and does, during this absence from 
the body, constitute a dream. It is stated that some 
of the Greenlanders believe that dreams are the observa- 
tions and experiences of the soul, which leaves the body, 
and goes out visiting, hunting, or upon any business or 
pleasure which it may choose to pursue. It is believed 
by some tribes that the soul at such times may visit the 
regions of the dead and converse wdth departed friends. 
The ideas of these primitive peoples are of interest, and 
of some value, to the student of mind. 

Somnambulism is dreaming accompanied by a greater 
or less degree of physical action. The somnambulist 
acts out his dream ; and this power of muscular activity 
indicates a condition of the bodily organism different 
from that in ordinary sleep. To a considerable extent the 
judgment and reason are active, and the will appears as 
a controlling power. Some of the senses are awake. The 
somnambulist usually hears what is said, if the conver- 
sation relates to the subject of his dream, and talks 
freely himself in reply to inquiries and suggestions, pro- 
vided these follow the current of his mental activity. 

Dr. Caldwell says : '' In all cases which have come 
under my observation the eyes have been wide open, but 
never directed upon any of the objects in the room, and 
never upon myself, even when a conversation was main- 
tained with the sleeper. The pupils of the eyes have al- 
ways been more dilated than in the natural state, lacking 
such expression as appears when observation is concen- 



2/6 SLEEP, DREAMING, SOMNAMBULISM, HYPNOTISM 

trated upon an object, and have uniformly had a remote 
look, as if the person were seeing beyond the walls of the 
room/' 

Things Extraordinary. Some very extraordinary 
things are related of the mental activity of persons in the 
somnambulistic state. Dr. Abercrombie relates the follow- 
ing incident quoted by Dr. Carpenter : '' A distinguished 
Scottish lawyer had been consulted respecting a case of 
great importance and much difficulty ; and he had been 
studying it with intense anxiety and attention. After 
several days had been occupied in this manner, he was ob- 
served by his wife to rise from his bed in the night, and 
go to a writing-desk which stood in the bedroom. He 
then sat down, and wrote a long paper, which he carefully 
put by in his desk, and returned to bed. The following 
morning he told his wife that he had had a most interest- 
ing dream ; — that he had dreamt of delivering a clear and 
luminous opinion respecting a case which had exceedingly 
perplexed him ; and that he would give anything to re- 
cover the train of thought which had passed before him 
in his dream. She then directed him to the writing desk, 
where he found the opinion clearly and fully written out ; 
and this was afterwards found to be perfectly correct.'' 
Cases are given of students who have wrought out diffi- 
cult mathematical problems in their dreams, problems 
which they had failed to master in a waking state. Men 
are said to have written discourses and other articles of 
great excellency and power while in the sleeping state. 

Professor Wundt's Opinion. The distinguished Ger- 
man author, Professor Wundt, rejects all accounts of these 
wonderful performances. He affirms that dream percep- 



HYPNOTISIM 277 

tions are of an illusory character, and are misinterpreted by 
the somnambulist. He takes a window for a door, or the 
ridge of the roof for a boulevard. He will hardly go be- 
yond those simple acts which have become nearly if not 
quite automatic. '' The tales that are told of wonderful 
dream-performances, — the sleep-walking mathematician 
who solves a difficult problem, or the schoolboy who 
regularly does his work in this very convenient way, — we 
may consign without more ado to the limbo of the fabulous. 
No reliable observer has ever confirmed reports like these ; 
and they conflict with all we know of the nature of dream- 
ideas in general.'* In spite of this sweeping statement. 
Dr. Carpenter, a man not easily imposed upon, appears to 
give credit to the accounts of these marvelous somnambu- 
listic performances. 

Hypnotism bears some relation to somnambulism, and a 
few writers regard it as only an artificial form of that con- 
dition. The differences between the two, however, are 
very marked in certain directions. The term hypnotism 
is employed to denote all the phenomena connected with 
the subject. Hypnosis is the name of the state into which 
persons are thrown during experiments ; this state is 
often called a sleep. A person in this condition is called 
a hypnotic or simply a subject. The operator is a hyp- 
notist or a hypnotizer. 

Facts established. It seems to be established that 
some persons are able to exercise a dominating influence 
over or upon some other persons by means of direct con- 
tact, or by words, acts, or gestures. It is claimed that 
this influence may be exercised when the parties are at a 



2/8 SLEEP, DREAMING, SOMNAMBULISM, HYPNOTISM 

long distance from one another. There is, however, rea- 
son to doubt the validity of this claim, if not to deny it 
altogether. The power of the hypnotist extends to the 
control, more or less complete, of the psychical process of 
the hypnotic, causing false perceptions and false concep- 
tions whenever he chooses so to do. One of the princi- 
pal conditions of the induction of the hypnotic state is 
a complete surrender of the will of the subject so that he 
is passive in the hands of the operator. Another im- 
portant condition is that the hypnotic shall believe in the 
power of the hypnotist, and shall expect to fall into the 
sleep. Many persons are proof against the influence of 
the hypnotizer, although, in some cases, their strength 
to resist is finally overcome by repeated efforts. 

When in the hypnotic condition, the subject is com- 
pletely under the control of the operator. He has no will 
of his own ; whatever the hypnotizer suggests he receives 
and accepts. He cannot open his eyes of his own accord, 
nor perform any voluntary movement. He performs 
movements suggested to him ; puts himself, his arms or 
legs, in the most uncomfortable positions, and remains in 
these positions until a suggestion or command relieves 
him. In some cases the muscles become rigid and the 
joints refuse to be moved. 

Illusions and Hallucinations. In hypnosis it is possi- 
ble to produce all sorts of illusions and hallucinations of 
the senses, an illusion being a false report or interpreta- 
tion of something which really exists, an hallucination, on 
the other hand, being a perception of an object where 
there is nothing. An example of the first would be the 
taking of a book for a cat ; an example of the second 



EFFECTS OF HYPNOTISM 279 

would be seeing a cat where no object exists. The oper- 
ator produces both or either of these at his pleasure by 
the power of suggestion, but the illusion is more easily 
produced than the hallucination. All varieties of the 
sense of touch, of pressure, of temperature, of pain, 
can be influenced. The operator tells the subject that 
he is standing on ice ; he feels cold at once ; he tremx- 
bles, his teeth chatter, he wraps himself up in his coat. 
Illusions of taste are easily induced. A glass of water be- 
comes wine, and is taken with great satisfaction. If the 
subject is told immediately that he has been drinking 
ink, he exhibits every mark of disgust. 

Effects upon the Muscular System. Extraordinary 
effects are sometimes produced upon the muscular sys- 
tem. Dr. Carpenter states that he saw a man of slight 
physical development, who had not for many years ven- 
tured to lift a weight of twenty pounds, '' take up a quar- 
ter of a hundred weight upon his little finger, and swing it 
round his head with the greatest apparent facility, upon 
being assured that it was as light as a feather.** At an- 
other time he lifted fifty pounds on the last joint of his 
forefinger, as high as his knee. 

The skin and the mucous membrane may be made des- 
titute of feeling so that the prick of a pin is not felt, nor 
the fumes of ammonia in the nose, nor a touch of the cor- 
nea of the eye. 

Use by Physicians. This fact has sometimes been 
utilized by physicians in surgical operations of minor im- 
portance. It is believed by many practitioners that a 
cautious use of suggestion may be of service in the treat- 
ment of nervous diseases and in correcting some func- 



28o SLEEP, DREAMING, SOMNAMBULISM, HYPNOTISM 

tional derangements. Such treatment, however, should be 
made only by the most intelligent men of the medical 
profession. 

Posthypnotic Effects. The posthypnotic effects of 
suggestion are among the most extraordinary phenomena 
of hypnotism. For example, the subject is told to-day, 
while in the hypnotic state, that to-morrow, at a certain 
hour, he will perform, or will be strongly impelled to per- 
form, a particular act. It seems to be proved that, at the 
time specified, the subject actually performs the act, or is 
so strongly inclined to do so, that he resists the incli- 
nation with much diflficulty. When asked why he does 
this, he replies that he could not help it, and can give 
no better reason. 

After having yielded themselves for a long time to 
the influence of a hypnotizer, some persons become 
able to hypnotize themselves. This appears to be done 
by voluntarily exciting and fixing the idea that they 
will presently fall into the hypnotic state. This habit 
may become fixed like the morphine or the alcoholic 
habit, and it is, if possible, even more dangerous than 
those habits. 

Advice. Space w^ill not allow a more extended dis- 
cussion of the subject of hypnotism. It has been consid- 
ered here only because its phenomena naturally belong to 
the study of mind. In conclusion it is very strongly 
urged up07i students ajid readers to avoid all itinerant 
lecturers up07t hypnotism and kindred topics. Do not yield 
yourselves to the influence of any hypnotist, nor indulge 
in what are called harmless experiments. The hypnotic 
habit shatters the nervous system^ weakens the intellect^ 



SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 281 

and often completely destroys the moral powers. The only 
safety is total abstinence. 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER. 

1. Sleep a necessity of nature. 

2. Degrees of sleep. 

3. Predisposing causes of sleep. 

4. Hours of sleep required. 

5. Waking from sleep. 

6. Dreaming ; what it is. 

7. Do we always dream ? is the mind always active ? 

8. Difference between sleeping and waking mental activity. 

9. Causes of dreams. 

10. Dr. Abercrombie's statements. 

11. Ancient beliefs. 

12. Dr. Taylor's statements. 

13. Somnambulism ; what it is. 

14. Condition of the somnambulist. 

15. Extraordinary things. 

16. Professor Wundt's opinion. 

17. Hypnotism ; what it is. 

18. Facts established. 

19. Illusions and hallucinations. 

20. Effects upon the muscular system. 

21. Use by physicians. 

22. Posthypnotic effects. 

23. Advice to students and others. 



APPENDIX 

(The author is indebted to his associate, Professor C O. Hoyt, for val- 
uable assistance in preparing this appendix.) 

SUGGESTIONS AS TO EXPERIMENTS AND APPARATUS. 

Psychological experiments which require complicated and costly 
apparatus can be properly performed only in the laboratories of 
universities and special schools. Such experiments are of interest 
and value, but they belong to the province of scientific investiga- 
tion rather than to the sphere of ordinary teaching. Teachers and 
students of secondary schools will generally be w^ise to accept the 
conclusions deduced from results of these experiments without at- 
tempting to repeat and verify them. It should also be remembered 
that most of such experiments are more physiological than psy- 
chological. 

But many comparatively simple experiments, requiring little or 
no apparatus (see p. 294), can be performed by teachers and stu- 
dents in the ordinary school. Such experiments add interest to the 
study of psychology, serve to illustrate laws and conditions of men- 
tal action, and in some cases render instruction and explanations 
clearer and more impressive. 

Experiments, however, whether simple or complicated, in order 
to be profitable, should have a specific and definite purpose, at 
least in the mind of the teacher. Amusement is not always to be 
debarred, for even amusement may be made to serve a good pur- 
pose. Experiments themselves in the teaching of psychology have 
not yet gone beyond the experimental stage, and the relative value 
of difierent forms of experimentation remains still to be fully deter- 

283 



284 APPENDIX 

mined. The best that can now be done is to suggest certain exper- 
iments and modes of illustration and leave instructors to devise 
others according to existing conditions and the means in their 
possession. 

Experiments may be grouped under a few heads indicating the 
immediate object in view, but the same experiments may be equally 
well adapted to several purposes. Students commencing the study 
of psychology need, first of all, to become familiar with \\v^ process 
of introspection. They should become able to trace backward the 
** stream of consciousness," and to discover and analyze, first cor- 
rectly and then also rapidly, their own mental activities and processes 
and the relations between these. The first questions put to a class 
through experiments should be simple rather than complex in their 
nature. These will necessarily involve the principles of association 
and mental suggestion. 

I. Experiments to Aid Introspection. — These necessarily 
involve association, suggestion, and representation or image- 
making. Require of students work like the following : 

1. Recall and state orally or write out carefully in the order of 
their occurrence, the mental processes of some recent short period 
named, and explain the connection between them. Include feel- 
ings as well as thoughts. 

2. Recall, in their order, the mental processes caused by some 
recent event which was {a) personally observed ; {h) described by 
another person ; {c) read of in book or paper. 

3. Describe, in their order, the mental processes recently occa- 
sioned {a) by seeing some object or place ; {b) by seeing some 
picture ; {c) by hearing some name or date. 

4. {cC) Excite expectant attention and show, for a moment, a 
word, the name of some object, act, person, or place, and require 
an account of what it suggested first and why ; {b) show the first 
letter of some short word, then the second letter, and so on, till the 
word is completed, and require statements of what each letter sug- 
gested as to the next letter or the whole word. 



APPENDIX 285 

Other exercises of a similar character will readily suggest them- 
selves to a teacher. They should be short, varied, animated, and 
selected in view^ of existing conditions and the character of a class. 
The mental peculiarities, habits, and previous training of the mem- 
bers of a class can be readily and profitably studied in this connec- 
tion. Observe the direction which suggestion takes. An object 
or its name may suggest (i) another object of the same or a sim- 
ilar class, (2) a quality or the qualities of the object, (3) the use of 
the object, (4) history or material of the object, (5) value of the ob- 
ject, (6) or some obviously incidental association. 

II. Attention ; Perception ; Observation. — Introspection 
involves and cultivates internal attention in respect to both ac- 
curacy and rapidity. Indeed, all experiments of necessity involve 
attention and serve to cultivate it. Experiments for testing and 
improving the activities of perception and observation are, to a 
large extent, experiments for testing and training attention. In 
training the observing powers, the senses, three things should be 
kept in view, (i) accuracy, (2) order, and (3) rapidity. A few ex- 
periments should be made especially to train attention. 

1. Show, for an instant, a few common words of moderate 
length, one at a time in succession, some spelled incorrectly. Call 
for the words and the spelling as given. 

2. Show groups of words, increasing the number in a group. 
Require as before. 

3. Show groups of letters and figures. Require first the names 
and number ; after a little practice, the location or position in the 
group. 

4. Show columns of figures for naming, adding, subtracting, 
multiplying, etc. Such examples may be varied indefinitely, by the 
use of cards, the blackboard, and small objects. 

Teach the importance of a regular order in observing groups 
and figures of all kinds. Require a gradual increase of rapidity 
after securing accuracy and order. Ascertain whether, in rap- 
idly observing words, attention is naturally directed to the first 



286 APPENDIX 

and last letters while the intervening ones are comparatively neg- 
lected ; and whether figures are noticed in their order. How is 
attention directed in observing a sentence ? The accuracy of ob- 
servation and the readiness of memory may be further tested by 
methods like the following : 

5. Require plans to be drawn, in the class, of rooms in the home, 
giving location of doors, windows, and articles of furniture, with 
descriptions of color of paint, of carpets, and of other objects. 

6. Require brief written accounts of some recent event which 
students have been spectators of or actors in ; of some place re- 
cently visited. Notice the different directions which the attention 
of different persons has taken, and inquire for the reasons for these 
differences. 

Observe the effect ot attention upon (i) the position of the body 
as a whole, position of the head and other parts of the body, (2) the 
production of fatigue and weariness, (3) the mental activities gen- 
erally. Can attention be continuous for any considerable time, or is 
it of necessity intermitte7it and somewhat rhythmic in its nature 1 

7. Effects of distracting conditions. Various simple experiments 
can be made to test the effects of unexpected distracting conditions 
and also to test the power of different persons to resist the usual 
effects of such conditions and circumstances. 

{a) Require words to be correctly written backwards, within a 
limited time, while interruptions of various kinds are attempted, 
such as suddenly presenting some moderately pungent odor to the 
nostrils, speaking the name, etc. 

{b) Require a number of words and figures to be written in reg- 
ular order, within a limited time, arithmetical examples to be 
correctly solved, a number of lines to be drawn with entire regu- 
larity, or other work to be done which demands close attention, and 
observe the effects, upon the regularity, rapidity, and correctness 
of the work, of the unexpected striking of an alarm clock or a bell, 
a loud knock at the door, and other sounds and movements. Ex- 
periments for this purpose may be easily multiplied by a teacher. 



APPENDIX 287 

III. The Senses. — Sensation and Perception. (A) Touch 
and muscular effort. Passive touch must be distinguished from 
active touch. In the first we are touched ; in the second we touch 
something and volition is required as well as positive muscular 
efifort. In most experiments upon touch, taste, and smell, the eyes 
of the subject should be closed. 

1. Touch the skin on different parts of the hands, face, arm, etc., 
gently with the points of a pair of dividers and note the distance 
between the points when the sensation of two touches begins to be 
felt. Note also whether there is a difference in the quality or char- 
acter of the sensations produced when different parts of the person 
are touched. (The compass points, if not very blunt, should be 
covered with bits of cork or pith.) 

2. Test Weber's law by laying small weights on the palm of the 
hand. The effect of mere pressure will be determined when the 
hand is supported ; of positive muscular effort when it is not sup- 
ported, so that lifting is done. 

3. The threshold of pressure and muscular effort may be tested 
by the use of very light weights of pith or cork or some other light 
substance. Various other experiments upon touch may be devised 
by the teacher, 

4. Experiments of sensitiveness to variations of temperature, 
both real and imaginary, may be made by means of small vessels 
of water of different degrees of temperature, by touching the skin 
with glass or metal rods, by having one end of a wire or small rod 
held in the hand while the other end is heated, or supposed to be, 
by a lamp or by other means. These tests may readily be varied" 
by the skill of the teacher. 

{B) Taste and Smell, The sensations of taste and smell are 
necessarily very closely connected and are frequently so mingled 
as not to be clearly distinguishable. 

I. With the nostrils closed, touch the tongue with pure water 
and with weak solutions of various essences. The mouth should 
of course be rinsed frequently so that the different tastes shall not 



288 APPENDIX 

be mingled. The sensitiveness of different parts of the mouth and 
tongue may be tested by the use of small brushes. The influence 
of suggestion may be readily discovered in this connection. 

2. The threshold of the sense of smell may be tested by having 
solutions of some odorous substance, of different degrees of 
strength, prepared in a number of vials or small bottles which, be- 
ginning with the weakest, are brought carefully in contact with the 
nostrils. Each nostril may be tested separately. 

3. The discrimination of odors may be tested by the use of weak 
solutions of various odorous substances in bottles, or by spraying 
the air of the room with a solution, if only one test is to be made 
at the time and the room is not too large. 

4. Interesting tests of the power of suggestion and imagination 
may be made in connection with the sense of smell. Solutions or 
sprays of one substance may be used when another has been in- 
directly suggested, or pure water may be used when some partic- 
ular odor is expected. The gas may apparently be turned on 
when the burner has been stopped with wax, or the teacher may 
appear to smell some odor, or some object usually odorous, but 
not so at the time, may be exposed. 

(C) Hearing, Experiments mostly physiological. The influence 
of attention and its nature are especially observable in experiments 
upon the sense of hearing. Experiments of a practical character 
will be of greater value to ordinary students than those of a purely 
scientific nature. 

I. Distance at which a sound can be heard. For obvious rea- 
sons accurate tests for this purpose cannot be made upon a class 
as a whole. The relative sharpness of hearing in different indi- 
viduals may be determined to some extent by having the class 
listen to the ticking of a watch, the sound of a tuning fork, the 
clicking of some instrument, or some other sound. Always bear 
in mind that watches vary in the loudness of their ticking. As- 
certain the greatest distance at which individuals can hear the 
sound of the fork or the ticking of the watch {a) with both ears 



APPENDIX 289 

open ; {b) with one ear stopped ; (c) with the fork or watch in dif- 
ferent directions, in front, behind, on the right and left ; {d) on a 
level with the ear, higher, lower. 

2. Sounds continuous or intermittent. Ascertain whether 
sounds, at any given distance, are continuous or intermittent ; if in- 
termittent, whether they are regularly so, that is, rhythmic. If there 
is variation in distinctness, does this depend entirely upon the de- 
gree of attention, or partially upon the state of the nerves ? 

3. Length of time a given sound can be heard, {a) Does this 
depend largely upon the distance from the sounding body ? (b) Is 
it affected by the pitch of the sound when the volume is apparently 
the same ? {c) Is it affected by the quality of the sound, as agree- 
able or disagreeable, harsh or mild, etc. ? 

4. Note, when this is practicable, the effect of weariness and 
fatigue in all these experiments. Note also whether persons with 
musical taste and training generally differ in any respect from other 
members of the class. Are they more apt to form auditory images 
of letters, words and figures ? Are they more sensitive to the quality 
of sounds ? 

[D) Sight. Experiments mostly physiological. 

1. Determine whether vision is normal by the use of letters, 
words, and other characters of different sizes and at different dis- 
tances. Cards and the blackboard may be used. If abnormal 
cases are discovered make special individual tests for these. 

2. Test for color blindness. Tests for this purpose must be in- 
dividual to a large extent. 

[a) Require the sorting and matching of colored cards, colored 
papers, colored worsteds, etc. ; select a card of some color, as green 
or red, without naming the color, and require it to be matched ; 
require lighter and darker shades to be picked out and placed be- 
side a selected color. 

(b) Show particular colors and require the name. Test the ra- 
pidity with which names can be given when colors are shown. 
Various colored articles may be shown. Only distinct and prom- 

19 



290 APPENDIX 

inent colors should be used in this exercise. Considerable allow- 
ance must be made for the previous training- and environment of 
individuals. Observe whether the sexes differ in respect to knowl- 
edge of colors and in color-bHndness. 

3. Persistence of impressions ; after-images, {a) Look steadily 
and intently at any bright color for a short time, then shut the eyes. 
The impression of the color will continue for a brief period, some- 
times changing into the complementary color, [b) Look steadily 
and intently at colored cards or small pieces of colored paper on 
a white ground a few seconds, then remove quickly the card or 
paper and observe the result ; notice the colors which are seen. 

4. Accuracy and rapidity of vision. These experiments are 
little else than the cultivation of attention with added reference to 
the ability to compare and judge. 

{a) Show for a very short time letters, words, short sentences, 
several unrelated words, etc. 

(J?) Show cards with an increasing number of letters, figures, and 
characters of various kinds in different positions, and test, the ac- 
curacy of the observation of the numbers, forms, positions etc. 

Tests of this sort can be readily multiplied by the teacher and 
varied according to conditions. 

5. Illusions of sight. Some figures are given on pages 69 and 
70 to illustrate illusions as to the length of lines, and to show how 
parallel lines may be made to appear not parallel. An abundance 
of material to illustrate the various forms of illusion may be ob- 
tained from *' Pseudoptics," (p. 294) to which the teacher is re- 
ferred. We are so familiar ^with illusions of certain kinds that they 
cease to be regarded as illusions. The apparently increased size 
of the moon when near the horizon, the bending of a stick' thrust 
into the water, and the convergence of the rails on a railway 
track are examples. 

6. Mixing or blending of colors. The mixing of colors will be 
best illustrated by the use of the color wheel or mixer. Make 
experiments with various colors and observe the results in each 



APPENDIX 291 

case. The apparent blending to the eye depends upon the persist- 
ence of impressions upon the retina, and its perfection will be 
determined by the rapidity of the rotation of the wheel. 

IV. Reaction-time. — Reaction is action in response to some 
other action, or to a stimulus, or a signal of some sort. The 
time between the stimulus or signal and the answering action is 
the reaction-time. 

1. Perfectly accurate determinations of reaction-time can be 
made only by the use of some sort of apparatus. An inexpensive 
" Reaction-timer " will serve the purpose. Directions for its use 
can be had with the instrument. Written explanations without 
the instrument will be of little value. 

2. Without apparatus various simple experiments can be made 
which will indicate, in a general way, the comparative reaction-time 
of different students, and the effect of signals given to the differ- 
ent senses. In all such experiments attention is one of the most 
important factors ; after this, sensitiveness to stimuli or signals, 
quickness of volition, and ready response of the nerves and muscles 
to the impulse of the wall. Reaction-time is occupied by {a) 
recognition of the signal, {b) mental act of volition, and [c) response 
of the muscles. 

Reaction to touch may be illustrated by passing an impulse 
along a line or circle of persons with hands lightly clasped, or the 
right hand of each person resting on the shoulder or head of the 
one next in the line. Signals for movements may be given to the 
ear by words, by taps with a pencil, or by sounds of any indicated 
kind ; to the eye by movements, by showing colored objects, or by 
such means as readily suggest themselves. The effect of fatigue 
upon reaction-time should be carefully observed. 

Reaction-time and the rapidity of mental action may be tested by 
requiring the solution of mathematical problems, or the perform- 
ance of any exercise which involves both thinking and motor 
activity, and noting the time occupied by different individuals. 

V. Image-making or Visualizing. — Many of the experiments 



292 APPENDIX 

suggested under previous heads necessarily involve visualizing, but 
some special tests of this power will be of practical value. An in- 
teresting discussion of this subject will be found in Francis Gal- 
ton's " Inquiries into Human Faculty," to which the teacher is 
referred. 

Inquiries like the following may be made : 

1. Do words pronounced excite visual or auditory images? Do 
you see the word as written or printed, or do you hear the sounds 
of the letters in their order ? If doubtful as to the correct spelling 
of a word, do you picture it to the eye, or utter it to the ear ? 

2. When reading or listening to descriptions of persons, places, 
buildings, landscapes, paintings, etc., do you form images for the 
eye, or only hear the sounds of the w^ords ? 

3. When numbers or figures are named, do you see them as on 
the page of a book, or on the blackboard, or in the air, or do you 
only hear them as pronounced ? 

4. When playing upon a piano or other musical instrOment, or 
singing, do you see the notes as written or printed ? When speak- 
ing what has been committed to memory, do you see the manu- 
script or the printed page ? 

5. Are your visual images complete, distinct and clearly defined? 
Can you recall with distinctness the features of many persons ? 
What objects can you visualize most readily and satisfactorily ? 

VI. Fatigue and Weariness. — In all experiments fatigue should 
be carefully distinguished from w^eariness. Weariness may de- 
crease as fatigue increases. Weariness may be overcome by 
change of subject, change of method, change of teachers. Fatigue 
demands rest, sleep, tim.e for the restoration of nervous energy. 
" Weariness is a superficial fact of attention, which may appear, 
disappear, and reappear many times a day ; fatigue is a deep- 
seated phenomenon of nervous exhaustion, w^hich steadily increases 
with a continuance of work." Tests of fatigue are both physical 
and mental, but in most cases any test touches both the physical 
organism and some form of psychical activity. Not many direct 



APPENDIX 293 

experiments to indicate the degree of fatigue and its effects can be 
made in a class studying psychology during the recitation period. 
Some such experiments can be suggested or described which can 
be made elsewhere. 

1. Test the power of a class to give close attention at different 
periods of the day ; the power to observe accurately and rapidly ; 
the power to describe readily and accurately what has been seen 
or heard. 

2. Give a considerable number of arithmetical examples of the 
same character to be solved, and notice whether there is a decrease 
in ^<2^2*^//y of working and an increase in the number of errors, 
toward the close of a given time. Give a small number of difficult 
examples and note the same points. 

3. Test the power to commit to memory several names, or dates, 
or numbers, or short statements of various kinds, read or repeated 
by the teacher. Test the ability to recall matter learned a short 
time since. 

4. To test the power to think rapidly and the susceptibility to 
suggestion, give a number of sentences and paragraphs upon 
familiar subjects with words omitted, and observe the time occupied 
in filling the blanks with words which make good sense. 

5. Test the reaction-time by various devices ; the effect of fatigue 
upon the number of taps made with a pencil, or a telegraph key, or 
the finger, within a given time ; the rapidity of muscular move- 
ments generally. 

6. Observe whether the influence of fatigue is constant, or 
whether it varies from moment to moment, or within short periods 
of time. If there is variation, is it regular and rhythmic.'^ Does 
the weather have any observable influence in the production of 
fatigue ? 

7. Observe the effect of fatigue upon the power of self-control, 
and upon will-power generally ; upon the conduct and tone of 
feeling. 

8. After fatigue has become quite evident, is there sometimes a 



294 APPENDIX 

period of greater or less length, of apparent recovery of vigor, a 
'* second wind," so-called ? If so, can the cause be satisfactorily- 
explained ? 

9. Does change of work, a brief period of physical exercise, re- 
lieve fatigue as well as weariness ? If so, why ? 

Apparatus. 

Only a few articles are named in the following list — only those 
needed for performing all the experiments described in this ap- 
pendix. For a more extended list, refer to any work on •♦ Experi- 
mental Psychology." 

1. Letters, words, and figures printed on cards. These can be 
prepared by teachers themselves, if desired, according to their own 
taste and judgment. 

2. Frame for showing words, etc. 

3. Stop-watch or a watch with seconds hand. 

4. Compasses or dividers, with material for cork or pith points. 

5. Scales (as delicate as possible), and small weights of various 
kinds. 

6. Glass rods, metal rods, or pieces of wire, etc. 

7. Small alcohol lamp, or other convenient source of heat. 

8. Essences for tastes and odors ; some vials or small bottles. 

9. Small camel's-hair brushes (p. 288). 

10. Atomizer for spraying (p. 288). 

11. Tuning forks ; some of them on resonance boxes. 

12. Cardboard, white and colored, and cards. 

13. Paper of various colors, w^hite tissue. 

14. Colored worsteds. 

15. Pseudoptics. This consists of sets of material, in small 
boxes, to illustrate visual perception and illusions of sight. 
(Bradley, Springfield, Mass.) 

16. Color wheel or mixer, with color discs. 

17. Reaction-timer. Sandford's pendulum chronoscope will be 
suitable and is not expensive. 



APPENDIX 295 

18. Telegraph key, or snapper (p. 293). 

Besides the above, two other pieces of apparatus are recom- 
mended, in connection with the study of the brain : 

1. Brain models. A set of several pieces will be desirable and 
will be of more service than pages of description. 

2. Drawings of portions of the brain and other parts of the 
nervous system. These can be prepared by teachers on cardboard 
or strong paper, by enlarging cuts found in text-book upon phys- 
iology. 



INDEX 



Abstract ideas, nature of and how 
formed, 119; how differ from con- 
cepts, 119. 

Abstraction, definition and process 
of, 115, 

AcQUisrnoN, sentiment of, 190. 

AcTivrrY, effect of obstruction of, 

149. 

Admiration, sentiment of, 203. 

Esthetic sentiments, 194. 

Affections, the beneficent, 170-172 ; 
the moral, 238. 

Alarm, nature of, 181. 

Altruistic emotions, 167. 

Analogy, reasoning by, 138. 

Analysis, nature and process of, 114. 

Anger, effect of, 174. 

Apperception, explained and de- 
fined, 125. 

Appetites, natural and artificial, 158, 
159; how related to desires, 212. 

Apprehension, 181. 

Approbation, desire of, 216. 

Association, laws of, 90-103 ; pri- 
mary laws of, 91 ; secondary or sub- 
jective laws of, 98 ; influence of 
upon sentiments, 198, 262. 

Attention, defined, 35; effects of 
concentration of, 36; varieties of, 
36, 37 ; effect of upon the body, 38 ; 
how produced, 39 ; natural and un- 
natural stimuli, 40, 41 ; influence 
of surroundings upon, 42 ; limita- 
tion of as to time, 43 ; a prime 
condition of memory, 44 ; to more 
than one thing at the same time, 44 ; 
importance of, 46, 98. 

Automatic movements, 219. 

Aversion, relation of to desire, 211. 



Beauty, elements of sensuous, 195; 
sentiment of moral, 205. 

Belief and doubt, 124. 

Brace, JuUa, 68. 

Brain, description of, 22 ; relative 
weight of, 23 ; divisions of, 24 ; 
zones of, 26. 

Bridgman, Laura, acquired percep- 
tions of, d']. 

Cause and effect, 95, 134. 

Cerebellum, description of, 27. 

Cerebrum, divisions of, 24. 

Change of activity, importance of, 
150. 

Child, position of in the world, 51 ; 
forms concepts, 116, 117. 

Classification of feelings, 154. 

Compassion, nature of, 180. 

Conception, defined, 116. 

Concepts, formation of general, 114, 
115; how the child forms, 116; ex- 
tension and intension of, 118; dif- 
fer from simple images, 117 ; com- 
pared with judgments, 123. 

Conduct, reflex influence of, 165; 
practical rules for, 245. 

Conscience, nature of, 235 ; extend- 
ed use of the word, 236. 

Consciousness, defined, 12; thresh- 
old and summit of, 55. 

Contiguity, law of, 93-97. 

Contrast, law of, 93. 

Custom, relation of to habit, 263. 

Deductive reasoning, 130. 
Definitions, nature of many, 120. 
Descriptions, nature of, 120. 



'2^1 



298 



INDEX 



Desire, defined, 211 ; causes unrest, 
212; how excited, 213 ; relation of 
to feeling, 214; specific forms of, 
214-217; relation of to volition, 
219. 

Desires, conflict of, 218 ; have moral 
character, 238. 

Despair, opposite of hope, 217. 

Direction, perception of, 64. 

DiscouRAGExMENT, nature of, 217. 

Disposition, 163, 261, 262. 

Division of labor in the brain, 25. 

Doubt and belief, 124. 

Dread, 181, 182. 

Dreaming, state of, 270. 

Dreams, mental activity in, 271; 
causes of, 272 ; ancient beliefs con- 
cerning, 274 ; Dr. Taylor's state- 
ments concerning, 274, 275. 

Duty, defined, 238. 

Egoistic emotions, 166. 

Emotional nature, cultivation of, 
207. 

Emotions, defined, 161 ; in animals, 
161 ; susceptibility to, 162 ; ex- 
pression of, 163 ; varieties and 
classes of, 166-183. 

Empirical psychology, 8. 

Enjoyment, how secured, 153. 

Environment, influence of, 226. 

Envy, nature and influence of, 175. 

Esteem, desire of, 216. 

Ethical or moral sentiments, 200. 

Evidence, assumptions as to direct, 
136; rules as to circumstantial, 

Experimental study, 16. 
Extension, perception of, 64 ; of 
concepts, 118, 

Fallacies, nature of, 132. 

Fancy, relation of to imagination, 82. 

Fear, nature and effects of, 181- 
183 ; instinctive, 258. 

Feelings, relation of to memory, 
100 ; two effects of, loi ; relation 
of to cognition, 145; importance 
of due proportion of, 146 ; impor- 
tance of knowledge of, 152; rela- 
tion of to morals, 153; varieties 
and classification of, 154; moral, 
237, 238. 

Freedom, sentiment of, 192. 



Freedom of the will, 224-226. 
Free Will, motives, etc., in rela- 
tion to moral sentiment, 201. 

Generalization, nature of, 115. 
Gratitude, sentiment of, 203. 

Habit, effects of, 151 ; how formed, 
261 ; definition of, 262 ; in moral 
education, 265. 

Habits, a necessity, 263; in the 
body, 263 ; of feeling and conduct, 
264 ; sometimes an evil, 266 ; for- 
mation of new, 266. 

Hallucinations, nature of, 70 ; in 
hypnotism, 278. 

Hatred, characteristics of, 177. 

Hearing, sensations of, 58 ; percep- 
tions of, 66. 

Herbart's theory of retention, 88. 

Heredity, influence of, 226. 

Hope, nature of, 217. 

Humor, 191, 192. 
I Hypnosis, defined, 277. 

Hypnotism, relation of to somnam- 
bulism, 277 ; some facts relating to, 
277, 278 ; effects upon the mus- 
cular system, 279 ; use of by physi- 
cians, 279 ; advice concerning, 280. 

Ideas of time and space, 133, 134 ; 
abstract, 119. 

Illusions, 69 ; produced by hypno- 
tism, 278. 

Image, nature of, 75 ; how differs 
from a concept, 117. 

Imagination, defined, 75 ; repro- 
ductive and constructive, jy ; var^ 
ieties of constructive, 79; value 
of, 79, 80 ; passive and active, 80 ; 
limitation of, 81 ; relation of to 
fancy, 82 ; abuse of, ^;^ ; cultiva- 
tion of, 84-86. 

Indignation, nature of, 184. 

Inductive reasoning, 129. 

Inhibition, nature and importance 
of, 223. 

Instinct, relations of, 249 ; opinions 
relating to, 250 ; definitions of 251, 
252; ofiice of, 253; limitations of, 
254; modifications of, 256; in 
man, 257 ; knowledge of necessary, 
259 ; stupidity of, 260. 

Instinctive acts, 220, 258. • 



INDEX 



299 



Intuition, moral, 232, 244. 
Intuitive judgment, and truth, 133; 
characteristics of, 135. 

Jealousy, nature and effects of, 176. 
Judgment, defined, 121, 122; moral, 

233, 234 ; guided by law, 239. 
Judgments, affirmative and negative, 

122 ; singular and universal, 123 ; 

compared with concepts, 123 ; when 

true, 124 ; intuitive, 133. 
Justice, sentiment of, 203 ; Roman 

ideac^f, 244 ; fundamental principle 

of rnofal law, 245. 

Keller, Helen, 68. 
Knowledge, desire of, 215. 

Laws of association and suggestion, 
90-97 ; primary or objective, 91 ; 
subjective or secondary, 98 ; a 
fundamental law of, 94. 

Ijfe, desire of, 214. 

Love, emotions of, 170-172. 

Ludicrous, sentiment of, 191. 

Malice, characteristics of, 177. 

Memory, defined, 88 ; laws of asso- 
ciation relating to, 91-98 ; varieties 
of, 104 ; causes of differences in, 
104 ; improvement of, 106-110. 

Mind or soul, definition of, 11, 12 ; 
connection of with the body, 13, 14. 

Moods and dispositions, 163. 

Moral beauty, sentiment of, 205. 

Moral law, origin, character and 
scope of, 241 ; theories as to the 
. source or origin of, 241-244 ; some 
principles of, 244-245. 

Moral nature in man, 231 ; the train- 
ing of, 247. 

Motives, 225, 226. See Desire. 

Motor nerves, 29, 32. 

Movements, automatic, random, re- 
flex, instinctive, 219,220. 

Music and poetry, influence of, 197. 

Nerve matter described, 21, 23. 
Nerves described, 28 ; divisions of, 

29, 30. 
Nervous system, 19, 21, 22. 

Obstacles in the study of self, 16 ; 
in the observation and study of 
others, 17, 18. 



Patriotism, sentiment of, 202. 

Percept, defined, 61. 

Perception, relation of to sensa- 
tion, 60 ; definitions of, 61 ; con- 
ditions of, 62 ; through the different 
senses, 62-66 ; other mental ac- 
tivities with, 68 ; the cultivation 
of, 71. 

Personal sentiments, 193. 

Philanthropy, sentiment of, 202. 

Physiological psychology, 7. 

Pity, nature of, 180. 

Poetry and music, influence of, 197. 

Possession, sentiment of, 190 ; de- 
sire of, 215. 

Posthypnotic effects, 280. 

Prejudice, 173. 

Presentative activities, functions 
of, 74. 

Proof and proving, 132. 

Psychology, defined, 7 ; the old, 8 ; 
the new, 9 ; relation between the 
old and the new, 9, 10 ; subjective 
and objective, 13. 

Punishment not revenge, 177. 



Reason and instinct, 252. 

Reasoning, definition of, 128; induc- 
tive, 129; deductive, 130; demon- 
strative and probable, 131 ; ulti- 
mate basis of, 136 ; on moral ques- 
tions, 143. 

Recognition, of objects, 75 ; by 
name, 76. 

Reflex action, described, 30 ; mech- 
anism of, 31. 

Reflex movements, 220. 

Repetition, value of in memory, 99. 

Representation, the earliest, 75; 
in reading, 76; real and ideal, yy. 

Repression, effects of, 148. 

Reproduction, passive and active, 
105. 

Resentment, nature and office of, 
184. 

Retention and reproduction, 74 ; 
theories of, 88 ; experience as to, 

89. 

Revelation, theory of, as source of 

moral law, 243. 
Revenge, nature of, 177. 
Reverie, the nature and influence 

of, 106. 



30O 



INDEX 



Right, idea of, 231 ; source of idea 

of, 232 ; use of the word, 246. 
Rights, nature and source of, 246. 

Sensation, defined, 51 ; not knowl- 
edge, 52 ; conditions of, 53 ; in- 
tensity of, 54 ; relation of to stim- 
ulus, 56; quality in, 57. 

Sensations, duration of, 59; through 1 
the different senses, 155-157. | 

Sense-feelings or sensations, de- 
fined, 154 ; of the different senses, 

155-157. 

Sensibility, defined, 53. 

Sensory nerves, 29. 

Sentiments, definition of, 188 ; clas- 
sification of, 189; intellectual, 189; 
personal, 193 ; aesthetic, 194 ; of 
sublimity, 197 ; ethical or moral, 
200 ; some special, 202-207 ; culti- 
vation of, 207-209. 

Sight, sensations of, 58 ; percep- 
tions of, 65 ; 

Signs, natural and artificial, 97. 

Similarity, law of, 91, 92. 

Sleep, predisposing causes of, 269. 

Smell, perceptions of, 62,. 

Society, desire of, 216. 

Somnambulism, relation of to 
dreaming, 275 ; extraordinary phe- 
nomena of, 276 ; Professor Wundt's 
opinion of, 276. 

Soul or mind, defined, 11, 12. 

Space, idea of, 133. 

Spinal cord, description of, 28. 

Study, of self, 13 ; of others, 15. 

Sublime, sentiment of, 197. 



Superiority, sentiment of, 190. 
Surprise, nature of, 181. 
Syllogism, 131. 
Sympathy, sentiment of, 178. 

Taste, perceptions of, 63 ; aesthetic, 
194; standards of, 195. 

Temperament, definition and vari- 
eties of, 162. 

Tendency or disposition, explana- 
tion of, 261. 

Terror, 181, 182. 

Thinking, definition of, 112; begin- 
ning of, 113; first step in, 114; sec- 
ond step in, 121 ; third step in, 
128. 

Time, idea of, 134. 

Touch, sensations of, 58 ; percep- 
tions of, 6^' 

Truth, sentiment of, 189 ; defined, 
124. 

Truths, characteristics of intuitive 
or primary, 135. 

Utilitarian theory of morals, 242. 
Utility, feeling of, 199. 

Volition, analysis of an act of, 221- 
223 ; essence of freedom of, 225- 
226. 

Weber's laws, 57. 

Wholes and parts, relation of, 96. 

Will, freedom of, 224 ; testimony as 

to freedom of, 224, 225. 
Wit and humor, 191, 192. 
Wonder, nature of, 181. 



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